Latin Translation Resources and Tools

Latin Translation Resources and Tools Regardless of whether you need to interpret a short English expression into Latin or a Latin expression into English, you can not simply plug the words into a word reference and anticipate a precise outcome. You cant with most present day dialects, yet the absence of a balanced correspondence is significantly more noteworthy for Latin and English. In the event that all you need to know is the embodiment of a Latin expression, a portion of the supposed online interpretation devices for Latin may help. Maybe you need to recognize what Marcus in silvam vocat implies. The Latin-English interpretation program I attempted deciphered it as Marcus upon woods vocat. That is clearly not exactly right in light of the fact that vocat isnt an English word. It is anything but an extraordinary interpretation. Since I utilized that online instrument, Google has included its own interpreter that worked efficientlyâ enough however has been remarked on contrarily by numerous clients. In the event that you need an exhaustive, precise interpretation, you will presumably need to have a human do it for you, and you may need to pay a charge. Latin interpretation is an aptitude that takes a generous interest in time and cash, so interpreters have the right to be made up for their endeavors. In the event that youre keen on building up the aptitude of interpreting Latin, there are Latin online courses and other self improvement techniques for starting Latin just as Latin degree programs in schools and colleges. Between the two limits, be that as it may, there are some helpful apparatuses on the Internet. Parser A parser, similar to The Latin Parser, reveals to you fundamental realities about a word. Contingent upon what data the parser lets out, you can figure out which grammatical feature the word is and different basics you have to know so as to decipher. You may utilize a parser in the event that you understand that the Latin expression you need to comprehend has 1 (or 2) mysterious word and a lot of different words you can nearly translate. In the Marcus in silvam vocat model, Marcus looks enough like a name, that you neednt find it. In resembles the English expression of a similar spelling, however shouldn't something be said about silvam and vocat? On the off chance that you dont even realize what grammatical feature they are, a parser will help, since its main responsibility is to reveal to you its individual, number, tense, state of mind, and so on., if its an action word, and its number, case, and genderâ if its a thing. On the off chance that you do realize the words being referred to are accusative solitary and 3d particular, present dynamic demonstrative, you presumably additionally realize that the thing silvam deciphers as timberland/wood and the action word vocat as calls. At any rate, a parser or potentially word refere nce can help with small amounts of Latin like this. Dont utilize the parser to locate the Latin for an English word. For that, you need a word reference. Expecting you have a dubious recognition with Latin, a parser will reveal to you the potential types of a given word. This will help in the event that you cannot recall the endings of the ideal models, yet comprehend their motivations. Snappy Latin incorporates a word reference. Latin Dictionary and Grammar Aid This program doesn't necessitate that you download. You can utilize it for investigating attempting to make sense of things all alone, since you can embed endings (a rundown of which is on the page) or stems. VISL Pre-dissected Latin sentences This asset from Syddansk University appears to be a very valuable program for individuals showing themselves Latin, yet it just arrangements with pre-chosen sentences. It doesnt make an interpretation of the Latin into English by any stretch of the imagination, yet shows the connections among words by methods for tree outlines. In the event that you have ever had a go at outlining a tangled Latin sentence, you will comprehend what an impressive undertaking this is. By methods for a tree you can perceive how the words identify with one another; that is, you can tell that single word is a piece of an expression started by another word-like a relational word driving a prepositional expression. The pre-chosen sentences are from standard Latin creators, so you may discover the assistance you need. Interpretation Service In the event that you need in excess of a brisk estimate of an expression of Latin, and cant do it without anyone else's help, youll need assistance. There are proficient, expense charging administrations, as Applied Language Solutions Latin Translation Service - English to Latin Translation. Ive never utilized them, so I cannot reveal to you how great they are. There are currently Latin Translators, with costs illuminated in advance. Both case the most minimal costs, so check. A brief glance proposes theyre both right-contingent upon the quantity of words and bearing of Latin language interpretation: The Latin TranslatorClassical Turns

A View on Letter from Birmingham Jail essays

A View on Letter from Birmingham Jail expositions A View on Letter from Birmingham Jail Being a letter (correspondence), this article, doesn't have a title for every state, it has come to be known as Letter from Birmingham Jail. In the letter the essayist, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. (Dr. Lord) talks about his perspectives on what was occurring in the Civil Rights Movement and why. Dr. Ruler is a dependable essayist and gets able to compose on this subject since he is conceivably the most popular pioneer for the development for African-American social equality. Being a pioneer in this development Dr. Ruler adds more solidarity to his letter by being exceptionally engaging power, setting up believability, character, and certainty; he increases this by educating the peruser regarding his situation in the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. Lord has a particular sort of theory that a great many people will in general concur with. Dr. Lord composed this letter while he was in the Birmingham prison where he was kept in the wake of being captured by the Birmingham police as far as it matters for him in an exhibit. He was in Birmingham in light of the fact that an associate welcome to Birmingham to take part in a peaceful direct activity program. Dr. Lord sent this letter to Fellow Clergymen and has since been distributed in numerous structures on account of the recorded effect it holds. At first coordinated towards the eight priests that had offered expressions that his current exercises were incautious and inconvenient; Dr. Lord composed this letter since he wanted to protect his activities. This letter is simple for the peruser to comprehend and extremely clear about the reason, as a result of the great utilization of ethos, sentiment, and logos. It shows up he was attempting to get the perusers regard for let them realize that he would clarify his thoughts and activities. He is viable in his utilization of ethos and logos while clarifying his motivation and thinking for the activities. In the first place, LOGOS is a successful intrigue that Dr. Ruler utilizes in this letter by being sensible ... <!

Vitamins and Dietary Supplements

Vitamins and Dietary Supplements FDA Regulations Regarding Vitamins and Dietary Supplements Home›Informative Posts›FDA Regulations Regarding Vitamins and Dietary Supplements Informative PostsDietary supplements, nutritional supplements or  food supplement are preparations that supplement the diet and provides certain essential nutrients such as minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, fibers and amino acids that is either missing in the diet or is available  but insufficient in quantities. The definition of dietary supplement varies from countries, with others categorizing it as food while others categorize it as natural health products or drugs.  Codex Alimentarius; a   collection of international guidelines ,standards ,codes and recommendations that relate to food production, food safety  and foods categorize supplements containing dietary minerals and vitamins as food(Altman, pgs 34). The codex alimentarius that is an organization sponsored by food and Agriculture Commission and the world heath organization draw s up these texts. This research paper gives an insight on the roles of Food and Drugs Administration and answers the question whether the FDA require more regulations to ensure the safety of Dietary supplements.The FDA, which is an abbreviation for Food and Drug Administration, is responsible for the regulation of dietary supplements categorized as foods and not dietary supplements categorized as drugs. It is important to note the pharmaceuticals companies should obtain approval by the FDA, a process that involve assessing the benefits and     the potential risks a head of their entry into the market. The distributors and manufacturers must notify the FDA before introducing before marketing the dietary supplements that contains new ingredients such as mineral, vitamins, amino acids herb or any other botanical( Flynn ,pgs 56).The dietary supplement with new ingredients intended for use by people for the purposes of increasing the dietary intake of particular minerals, vitamins or the introduction of new ingredients to the supplements with an aim of increasing an extract, constituent, metabolite or concentrate or any combination from the above should not enter the market before notification of the FDA. Such a notification by distributors and manufacturers dealing in the food should indicate the information on safety of the new ingredient, pending the marketing of the dietary supplement until the seventy-five days after notification elapses. The FDA is responsible for reviewing the information to ascertain the adequacy of information provided and consider safety concerns (Altman, pgs 34).In the year 2007, the FDA implemented the existing good manufacturing practices guidelines with an aim of ensuring that the quality of dietary supplements is up to the international standards ,is free of impurities or contaminant and the labeling is accurate. This policy equally ensures that the labeling, manufacturing, packaging and storing of the dietary supplements is up to st andards set by FAO and WHO. The Food and Drugs Administration also monitors the design and the construction of the plants that manufacture the dietary supplements, the keeping of records, testing of ingredients ,final products and complaints processes as part of  as part of quality assurance .Good manufacturing practices refers to the strict   and detailed procedures set out to ensure quality of the manufacturing process of certain products such as food, drugs   and dietary supplements . The good manufacturing practices proposed by the Food and Drugs Administration (FDA) helps establish systems that are able to prevent inconsistency, product contamination, unsanitary manufacturing, mistakes in product labeling and other production processes that have effects on human health. In the year 2003, the Food and Drugs Administration proposed a guideline for the current good manufacturing practices in relations to manufacturing, dietary ingredients, packaging and the dietary supplements.Th e Food and Drugs Administration experience certain challenges such as the 1994 passing of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DHSEA) , which limited the ability of the Food and drugs Administration to exercise authority over the dietary supplements as long as the distributors and manufacturers make no claim that their products treats ,prevents or cures diseases (Jaroff, pgs 75). The DHSEA is a product of intense lobbying by the manufacturers of the dietary supplements. This law exposes the consumers of dietary supplements to the risks of using substandard products, products containing harmful substances and the health risks associated with consumption of products with impurities and contaminants.This had negative effect on the responsibility of Food and Drugs and Administration since it has to prove that a dietary supplement contains harmful substances or is not safe. As a result, the FDA has made very little progress in terms of ensuring that the manufacturing companie s produce high quality and standardized products since it has only been able to top find the dietary supplement ephedra (the energy and weight loss substance) unsafe. The DHSEA provisions have negative impact on the regulation of the dietary supplement industry since it gives too much freedom to the dietary supplement manufacturers while restricting the ability of FDA to enforce standards and monitor quality of products.DHSEA restricts the ability of Food and Drugs Administration to regulate the activities of manufacturers hence providing little protection to the consumers from using harmful products available in the market. It is important to note that under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act it is the responsibility of the manufacturers to ensure that the dietary supplement they are producing are actually safe for human consumption before they commence marketing the products or distributing the dietary supplement to the market. The Food and Drugs Administration on the other hand can only take appropriate action once the dietary supplements already reach the market. In general, the manufacturers of the dietary supplement do not have to get approval from the Food and Drugs Administration of register with the FDA before they produce or sell the dietary supplements to the public. It is therefore incumbent upon the manufacturers of the dietary supplements to ensure that their products are safe for human consumption.There is equally need to develop regulations that compel the manufacturers of dietary supplements to convince or demonstrate to the Food and Drugs Administration that their products are safe for human consumption and that the information provided on the label is accurate. Currently, there is no provision or regulation in the law that compels the manufacturers of the dietary supplements to demonstrate to the Food and Drugs Administration or the consumers that the information and evidence on the safety of their products is accurate. It shoul d be mandatory requirement of every manufacturer to inform the FDA and by extension, the consumers of the evidence on the safety of dietary supplements they are producing.The FDA need to have extra regulations to enable it validate claims from consumers that regards the safety of dietary supplements. The FDA Should be able the claims that concerns on the contents of advertisements, printed media, product labels and media. Currently, the responsibility of validating such claims from the consumers or public lies with the manufacturers. The Food and Drugs Administration should be able to handle the claims relating to health, structures or function and the ingredient content claims.   The is need to establish legislations that mandates the FDA consumer claims concerning disease, food substance or health ,the contents of the dietary supplements, and the potential benefits of using a particular dietary product. The FDA should have a greater influence and a tighter control of the dietary s upplement industry in order to protect the consumers from unsafe products.There is need to come up with a regulation that eliminates the restrictions on health claims concerning dietary supplements since there are sufficient mechanisms that can hinder misleading and false claims. This will enable the FDA ensure that weight loss claims are true .It is equally prudent to come up with regulations that will enable the FDA keep information on the dietary supplements in the market and their manufacturers for purposes of handling claims and concerns from the consumers. The regulations should enable the FDA have other means of carrying out their mandate other than relying on adverse reports such as deaths, illnesses and injuries.There debate on whether the Food and Drugs Administration require extra regulations to perform its duties is double sided. The argument that the Food and Drugs Administration has adequate regulations to carry out its limited mandated advances that the manufacturers of dietary supplements should not register with the Food and Drugs Administration and that the manufacturers do not need to obtain   any kind of approval from the FDA  before the produce or sell their products to the consumers. The are people who are comfortable with the fact that the manufacturers are and should be responsible for ensuring safety of the dietary supplements before releasing their products to the market.The passing of DSHEA thrived on the argument that consumers should have an opportunity to make their own choices as regards the use or consumption of dietary supplement and that involvement of the FDA amounts to government infringing on the rights of Americans to choose. In line with this argument is the claim that consumers should be able to make choices on preventive healthcare programs depending on data from studies on health benefits of particular dietary supplements as long as the study is scientific. The individuals who favor this argument hold that the America n government should not impose regulations that are unreasonable hence slowing or limiting the flow of information and safe dietary supplements from reaching the consumers.There is an argument that if unrestricted or unlimited, the FDA will arbitrarily take punitive actions against particular dietary supplement manufacturers without fully demonstrating that their dietary supplements are actually unsafe. The power of FDA to remove a product from the market need to be restricted since they may remove a dietary supplement from the market based on some kind of arbitrary standard they consider reasonable and based on lack of adequate information.In conclusion, the FDA needs to have more regulations to ensure that they execute their mandate properly and protect the consumers from any unsafe dietary supplements. The manufacturing companies should be able to demonstrate to the FDA that the dietary supplements they are producing are safe, as this will eliminate the chances of any unsafe prod uct from reaching the market. The current regulations and legislations in place are not sufficient to enable the FDA protect the consumers from the risks of using harmful substances marketed as food supplement. There is need to come up with policies that can enable the Food and Drugs Administration ensure that the manufacturers of dietary supplements operate within the internationally recognized standards.The regulations should help the Food and Drugs Administration   ensure safety of the dietary supplements before they enter the market. It is however important to ensure that any regulation aimed at bolstering the efficiency of the FDA does not affect the manufacturers of dietary supplement negatively hence resulting in a deficit of the important products. The FDA should be able to ensure that the dietary supplements are safe for consumption and that the consumers are in a position to make informed choices about the dietary supplements in order to improve their health.

Gender And Its Impact On Our Lives - 1515 Words

Imagine experiencing self-doubt, or a sense of being in the wrong body and not understanding your own conceptions. Our gender is who we are; it affects every single aspect in our life. Including our actions and most importantly, our physical appearance. However, to further understand what this essay will consist of, we require to ask ourselves do we understand precisely what the definition of Gender is defined to be? Society and our own culture and religious views construct traits that are defined as masculine and feminine attributes. When we are born, we are perceived either boy or girl predicated on our biological differences. Defining our gender, then defines every single characteristic after that. Transgender children are born with their gender-defined for them. Although, it’s not precisely who they perceive to be. This essay will consist of exhibiting the evolution of how society apposed to this change afore to how much it celebrates it now and how Christianity has remain ed true to its values and perspectives. To further understand, a large amount of people, obtain a certain perspective on what a transgender person is. â€Å"When and how did these boundary-infringing embodiments and conceptions emerge into public vigilance? What is their history? Are they, as some claim, disorders that need rectification by scientific and medical experts? Or are they harbingers of an incipient order of things.† (Foucault 2001) Each year about seventeen equivocally sexed infants are bornShow MoreRelatedThird Gender1599 Words   |  7 Pagesjustification for aligning them with different social roles which restrict and mold their attitudes and behavior. Merriam-Webster defines gender as the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated with one sex. Narrow minded society of today is not satisfied with the natural difference of sex, but each insist on adding a cultural difference of gender to it. The unsophisticated, ideal physical facts always become associated with the complex ps ychological qualities (Holter). It is notRead MoreThere Comes A Time In Life Where We Finally Reach A Point1683 Words   |  7 Pagesfor each gender that they are expecting. A feminine floral pink baby shower for a girl or a blue, masculine one for a boy. As much as we want to say that things are better now and the roles seem to be more open, it is still very present that people, especially parents, tend to want their kids to take on a certain personality or interests that correlates to how they see gender roles and where their gender attitude lies because that is the way society taught up to think. The term gender and sex tendRead MoreHow Gender Impact On Young Women s Experiences And Identity1712 Words   |  7 Pagesessay I will focus on how gender might impact upon young women’s experiences and identity. The reason why I have chosen this topic, as it interests me on how young women’s identity can change and how this can impact on their life experiences. Gender is a word most people get caught up on today, there is so many different meanings. But in the 1970’s sociologist had a clear divide between gender and sex. Sex is a biological difference between men and women. However, gender was the difference betweenRead MoreGender Roles Are A Set Of Societal Norms Essay1648 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Gender roles are a set of societal norms dictating the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality† (Oxford). Is it a boy or girl? What sport will he play? When will she take dance lessons? Women shouldn’t have jobs! Men should work while women take care of the house! Women belong in the kitchen! Men don’t do household chores! These are just some examples of stereotypes adopted by societyRead MoreHow Gender Role Impacts on Identity Essay930 Words   |  4 Pages When contemplating the topic of gender role and its impact on identity one cannot help but realise that these gender roles have a huge part to play on a person’s identity. As gender is a combination of male and female it gives way for a number of characteristics to accompany each sex making them different from each other. This has an important position to play on identity which Kath Woodward stated in her book â€Å"Questioning Identity: Gender, Class, Nation† where she said â€Å"Without difference thereRead MoreDefinitions Of Sex And Gender1037 Words   |  5 Pagesdefinitions of sex and gender? The meanings of sex and gender can be viewed as what society see us as. A clear definition of sex can be defined as the biological characteristics among male and female, whereas, gender is the style in which society views the contrast among both male and female. Nowlan states that â€Å"sex in contrast, has been most often used to refer to the sum of the physical ch aracteristic that makes us biologically male and female† (Bob Nowlan 4) Moreoverly, â€Å"gender, in contrast, isRead MoreStereotypes : Sexism And Discrimination701 Words   |  3 PagesSherman Alexie once said, â€Å"Don’t live up to your stereotypes† (Alexie). There are going to be some stereotypes that are false, but you shouldn’t try to change yourself to fit that statement. Sexism and discrimination can come from stereotypes, but they are not true because we are unique in many ways and we can be defined by one label. Stereotypes can be defined as an explained image that creates a meaning for different groups of society, and they impact our society in numerous ways (Stereotype)Read MoreFemale Sexuality : Male Sexuality846 Words   |  4 Pagesplays a crucial role in our everyday lives. There is a constant double standard women face. In terms of sexuality both males and females are more similar than society deems them. It begins with parents; they have a great impact on how their daughters view sex and their own sexuality. Also female sexuality is considered taboo when they become mothers. There is a never ending battle of hypocrisy that women face when it comes to sexuality. These problems are influenced by gender roles, socialization,Read MoreSociety s Effect On Society1419 Words   |  6 PagesPeople dream and long for the day where they can fulfill the â€Å"American† dream where they settle down with someone of the opposite gender, fall in love, get married, and eventually try for a baby. People wait for nine-months of long and hard obstacles to finally meet their baby boy or baby girl. One cannot help but have a certain mindset already placed for each gender that they are expecting. Many people are going to want to the choice to identify with what they are comfortable with due to the factRead MoreGender Roles Have A Change Over Time1318 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout history, gender roles have been the foundation that determines the course of a civilization. These gender roles have undergone a change over time. It is important for every society to re-evaluate its preconceived ideas of gender and determine if that is still the norm for their society. When people think of gender roles we typically have set stereotypes in our head of what that means. Much of the time, what we believe, is not what is actually true. It is often argued what is right and

The Jewish People Essay - 1681 Words

The Jewish people believe that society is currently living in the end of one of four time periods that pertain to the fulfillment of the end time prophecy. This time period is considered the Pre-Messianic period, meaning the Messiah has yet to come. In this period, God will bring about redemption in His own time. The Jews believe that if all of Israel were to return to God, the Messiah would come and the final redemption would be immediate. According to the Biblical text, there are many prophecies that must come to past before redemption occurs. A few of these prophetic signs concerning Israel have already been fulfilled. For instance, the dispersion and regathering of the Jews was prophesied and has since occurred. The Bible accounts for two separate gatherings of the Jews in the land of Israel. The first is to be a gathering in disbelief; this prophecy was fulfilled when the state of Israel was created in 1948. During this time the Jewish people will despise the values of their rel igion in the generations preceding the Messiah. The government will remain godless and immoral. Neither parents nor elders will be respected and families will turn against one another. The second gathering is yet to come, but will be one in which the Jews regather in belief for redemption and is in conjunction with the coming of the Messiah. More signs of the pre-Messianic Era include: a population explosion, times of great suffering will occur, the Holy Temple will be rebuilt, the war of GogShow MoreRelatedThe Resilience Of The Jewish People982 Words   |  4 Pagesthe resilience of the Jewish people. Their best characteristic is their desire to remember. No other people has such an obsession with memory.† -Elie Wiesel. The Jewish people never want to forget what happened to their ancestors, what kind of jobs and tasks they were forced to do in their lifetimes. Jobs were a huge part of the Holocaust portion of World War II, only because there were not very many job opportun ities available to much of anyone, especially the people of a Jewish religion. Jobs wereRead MoreThe Persecution Of The Jewish People1105 Words   |  5 PagesThere is masses of historical debate surrounding the progression of Jewish persecution by the Nazis, this often fuelled by ‘intentionalists’, who believe Genocide was indeed the intention of one man from the beginning, rather than the theories of the ‘moderate functionalists ‘, that reason that the persecution of the Jewish people was a progression of radical policy ,of an entire group of people, due to the perceived failings of the Nazis previous racial policies. Section 2 Introduction - Nazi RegimeRead MoreJapan And The Jewish People2202 Words   |  9 PagesAlthough much research has taken place on the involvement of Japan in WWII, only limited research has been conducted into the connection between Japan and the Jewish people who were being prosecuted at the time. This paper aims to produce further acknowledgement and understanding of the history of the Jewish people in Japan, as well as give a different perspective on Japanese views and ideas of the period and strive to correct any misconceptions that may be strongly held since Japan’s defeat in 1945Read MoreA Short History Of The Jewish People1008 Words   |  5 Pagesfailure. On the other side of the spectrum is historian Raymond P. Scheindlin. Scheindlin’s novel, A Short History of the Jewish People, presents many cases of integration between the Christians and Jews that led to massacres and brutal endings for the Jewish community. There are many monumental events that take place during the l ong span of time that oversees European Jewish history, and both historians study and evaluate the events, however, they do so through different lenses. The story of theRead MoreThe Images Of The Jewish People Within1385 Words   |  6 PagesKayla Walcott Gwendolyn Guth English Quebec Writers October 29th 2014 The images of the Jewish people within are represented through the tainting of their culture through the use of negative stereotypes, but even more so by the descriptive examples of anti-Semitism and religious traditions. One of many mentioned stereotypes, is the perception that all Jews are wealthy one of the times that this is asserted is when it states, â€Å"If you got it right on your bar-mitzvah who knows but the rich uncleRead MoreThe Pilgrim Festivals By The Jewish People972 Words   |  4 PagesThere are three pilgrim festivals followed by the Jewish people. Shavuot is the second festival celebrated. Shavuot is a holiday that is celebrated by the Jewish community two days in a row each year. Shavuot is followed by the counting of Passover because the months are variable and determined by observation. Though, roughly the days of Shavuot fall on the 5th of Sivan until the 7th of Sivan.On the Gregorian calendar Shavuot is celebrated on Saturday the 11th of June for two days until Monday theRead MoreSingling Out the Jewish People743 Words   |  3 Pagesin 1941 which was to eradicate the whole Jewish population. Hitler called this plan the â€Å"Final Solution† (An Introductory History of The Holocaust). Why did Hitler and the Nazis single out the Jews for genocide? And in what ways did the Nazis single them out? Well first off, Hitler and the Nazis weren’t the first people to treat the Jews poorly; they were just the ones to treat them the worst and the most recent. But up until recent time the Jewish people have always been treated poorly throughoutRead MoreA Creation For A Home For The Jewish People1488 Words   |  6 PagesPopulation movements are described as the repositioning of large, swaths of people through the process of human migration. Shifts in a given population’s demographic is attributed to natural, behavioral or economic factors, i.e. victims of natural disasters, refugee populations, and the relocation of people as a by-product of development projects. The creation of nations is a catalyst for population changes, i.e. displacements and migrations. State-building is at the core of population movementsRead MoreHistorical Involvement Of The Jewish People1655 Words   |  7 Pagesinvolvement of the Jewish people in the cacao trade throughout the centuries, and e xamine how, as a result of Jewish contributions that continue to this day, the holy land came to flow not only with milk and honey, but chocolate as well. While some, including famous Nazi hunter Simon Wiesenthal believe that Christopher Columbus was actually Jewish (Wiesenthal), and others believe there exists a connection between the Maya and the Israelite ancestor Eber (The Mayans And The Jewish Midrash†), it seemsRead MoreJudaism : The Religion Of The Jewish People826 Words   |  4 Pagesis the religion of the Jewish people. It is a monotheistic religion meaning that the Jews believe in one, all powerful God. Jewish people were among the first convicts and settlers to Australia. Over many years the Jewish population in Australia grew making Judaism a more popular and known practiced religion in Australia. Judaism is a minority religion making up for around 0.3% of the Australian population. In the 2011 census 97, 335 Australians identified as Jewish with 90% of these Australians

Digital Subscriber Line Free Essays

string(381) " telephone lines may attenuate signals at 1 MHz \(the outer edge of the band used by ADSL\) by as much as 90 dB, forcing analog sections of ADSL modems to work very hard to realize large dynamic ranges, separate channels, and Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-3 Chapter 21 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line maintain low noise figures\." C H A P T E R Chapter Goals †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Identify and discuss different types of digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies. Discuss the benefits of using xDSL technologies. Explain how ASDL works. We will write a custom essay sample on Digital Subscriber Line or any similar topic only for you Order Now Explain the basic concepts of signaling and modulation. Discuss additional DSL technologies (SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDSL, IDSL, and VDSL). Digital Subscriber Line Introduction Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) technology is a modem technology that uses existing twisted-pair telephone lines to transport high-bandwidth data, such as multimedia and video, to service subscribers. The term xDSL covers a number of similar yet competing forms of DSL technologies, including ADSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDL, IDSL, and VDSL. xDSL is drawing significant attention from implementers and service providers because it promises to deliver high-bandwidth data rates to dispersed locations with relatively small changes to the existing telco infrastructure. xDSL services are dedicated, point-to-point, public network access over twisted-pair copper wire on the local loop (last mile) between a network service provider’s (NSP) central office and the customer site, or on local loops created either intrabuilding or intracampus. Currently, most DSL deployments are ADSL, mainly delivered to residential customers. This chapter focus mainly on defining ADSL. Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) technology is asymmetric. It allows more bandwidth downstream—from an NSP’s central office to the customer site—than upstream from the subscriber to the central office. This asymmetry, combined with always-on access (which eliminates call setup), makes ADSL ideal for Internet/intranet surfing, video-on-demand, and remote LAN access. Users of these applications typically download much more information than they send. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-1 Chapter 21 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line ADSL transmits more than 6 Mbps to a subscriber and as much as 640 kbps more in both directions (shown in Figure 21-1). Such rates expand existing access capacity by a factor of 50 or more without new cabling. ADSL can literally transform the existing public information network from one limited to voice, text, and low-resolution graphics to a powerful, ubiquitous system capable of bringing multimedia, including full-motion video, to every home this century. Figure 21-1 The Components of an ADSL Network Include a Telco and a CPE Core network Existing copper Server ADSL ADSL 1. 5 to 9 Mbps 16 to 640 kbps Internet ADSL connection ADSL will play a crucial role over the next decade or more as telephone companies enter new markets for delivering information in video and multimedia formats. New broadband cabling will take decades to reach all prospective subscribers. Success of these new services depends on reaching as many subscribers as possible during the first few years. By bringing movies, television, video catalogs, remote CD-ROMs, corporate LANs, and the Internet into homes and small businesses, ADSL will make these markets viable and profitable for telephone companies and application suppliers alike. ADSL Capabilities An ADSL circuit connects an ADSL modem on each end of a twisted-pair telephone line, creating three information channels: a high-speed downstream channel, a medium-speed duplex channel, and a basic telephone service channel. The basic telephone service channel is split off from the digital modem by filters, thus guaranteeing uninterrupted basic telephone service, even if ADSL fails. The high-speed channel ranges from 1. 5 to 9 Mbps, and duplex rates range from 16 to 640 kbps. Each channel can be submultiplexed to form multiple lower-rate channels. ADSL modems provide data rates consistent with North American T1 1. 544 Mbps and European E1 2. 048 Mbps digital hierarchies (see Figure 21-2), and can be purchased with various speed ranges and capabilities. The minimum configuration provides 1. 5 or 2. 0 Mbps downstream and a 16-kbps duplex channel; others provide rates of 6. 1 Mbps and 64 kbps for duplex. Products with downstream rates up to 8 Mbps and duplex rates up to 640 kbps are available today. ADSL modems accommodate Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) transport with variable rates and compensation for ATM overhead, as well as IP protocols. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-2 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Figure 21-2 This Chart Shows the Speeds for Downstream Bearer and Duplex Bearer Channels Downstream bearer channels n x 1. 536 Mbps 1. 536 Mbps 3. 072 Mbps 4. 608 Mbps 6. 144 Mbps 2. 048 Mbps 4. 096 Mbps x 2. 048 Mbps Duplex bearer channels C channel Optional channels 16 Kbps 64 Kbps 160 Kbps 384 Kbps 544 Kbps 576 Kbps Downstream data rates depend on a number of factors, including the length of the copper line, its wire gauge, the presence of bridged taps, and cross-coupled interference. Line attenuation increases with line length and frequency, and decreases as wire diameter increases. Ignoring bridged taps, ADSL perfo rms as shown in Table 21-1. Table 21-1 Claimed ADSL Physical-Media Performance Data Rate (Mbps) 1. 5 or 2 1. 5 or 2 6. 1 6. 1 Wire Gauge (AWG) 24 26 24 26 Distance (feet) 18,000 15,000 12,000 9,000 Wire Size (mm) 0. 5 0. 4 0. 5 0. 4 Distance (km) 5. 5 4. 6 3. 7 2. 7 Although the measure varies from telco to telco, these capabilities can cover up to 95 percent of a loop plant, depending on the desired data rate. Customers beyond these distances can be reached with fiber-based digital loop carrier (DLC) systems. As these DLC systems become commercially available, telephone companies can offer virtually ubiquitous access in a relatively short time. Many applications envisioned for ADSL involve digital compressed video. As a real-time signal, digital video cannot use link- or network-level error control procedures commonly found in data communications systems. Therefore, ADSL modems incorporate forward error correction that dramatically reduces errors caused by impulse noise. Error correction on a symbol-by-symbol basis also reduces errors caused by continuous noise coupled into a line. ADSL Technology ADSL depends on advanced digital signal processing and creative algorithms to squeeze so much information through twisted-pair telephone lines. In addition, many advances have been required in transformers, analog filters, and analog/digital (A/D) converters. Long telephone lines may attenuate signals at 1 MHz (the outer edge of the band used by ADSL) by as much as 90 dB, forcing analog sections of ADSL modems to work very hard to realize large dynamic ranges, separate channels, and Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-3 Chapter 21 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line Digital Subscriber Line maintain low noise figures. You read "Digital Subscriber Line" in category "Papers" On the outside, ADSL looks simple—transparent synchronous data pipes at various data rates over ordinary telephone lines. The inside, where all the transistors work, is a miracle of modern technology. Figure 21-3 displays the ADSL transceiver-network end. Figure 21-3 This Diagram Provides an Overview of the Devices That Make Up the ADSL Transceiver-Network End of the Topology Downstream channel(s) Duplex channel(s) Mux Error control XMTR D/A and A/D Line coupler Channel separation (FDM or ECH) Basic telephone service splitter Line Demux Duplex channel(s) Error control RCVR Basic telephone service ADSL transceiver–network end (Premises end is mirror image) To create multiple channels, ADSL modems divide the available bandwidth of a telephone line in one of two ways: frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation, as shown in Figure 21-4. FDM assigns one band for upstream data and another band for downstream data. The downstream path is then divided by time-division multiplexing into one or more high-speed channels and one or more low-speed channels. The upstream path is also multiplexed into corresponding low-speed channels. Echo cancellation assigns the upstream band to overlap the downstream, and separates the two by means of local echo cancellation, a technique well known in V. 32 and V. 34 modems. With either technique, ADSL splits off a 4-kHz region for basic telephone service at the DC end of the band. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-4 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Signaling and Modulation Figure 21-4 ADSL Uses FDM and Echo Cancellation to Divide the Available Bandwidth for Services FDM Upstream Basic telephone service Downstream Frequency Echo cancellation Upstream Basic telephone service Downstream 1 Mhz Frequency 1 Mhz An ADSL modem organizes the aggregate data stream created by multiplexing downstream channels, duplex channels, and maintenance channels together into blocks, and it attaches an error correction code to each block. The receiver then corrects errors that occur during transmission, up to the limits implied by the code and the block length. At the user’s option, the unit also can create superblocks by interleaving data within subblocks; this allows the receiver to correct any combination of errors within a specific span of bits. This, in turn, allows for effective transmission of both data and video signals. Signaling and Modulation This section includes the following: †¢ †¢ CAP and DMT Modulated ADSL ADSL Standards and Associations CAP and DMT Modulated ADSL DMT and CAP are line-coding methods for modulating the electrical signals sent over the copper wire in the local loop. Carrierless Amplitude and Phase (CAP) is a common line-coding method. CAP is a well-understood technology because of its similarity with QAM. Although CAP is well-understood and relatively inexpensive, some argue that it is difficult to scale because it is a single-carrier modulation technique and is susceptible to narrowband interference. DMT uses multiple carriers. At this point, DMT is capable of more speed than CAP. This is one reason that the ANSI committee T1E1. accorded it standards status in document T1. 413. This standard calls for 256 subbands of 4 KHz each, thereby occupying 1. 024 GHz. Each subband can be modulated with QAM 64 for clean subbands, down to QPSK. If each of the subbands can support QAM-64 modulation, then the forward channel supports 6. 1 Mbps. On the return path are 32 subbands, with a potential for 1. 5 Mbps. Internetworking Technologies H andbook 1-58705-001-3 21-5 Chapter 21 Signaling and Modulation Digital Subscriber Line CAP and DMT Compared CAP is a single-carrier technique that uses a wide passband. DMT is a multiple-carrier technique that uses many narrowband channels. The two have a number of engineering differences, even though, ultimately, they can offer similar service to the network layers discussed previously. Adaptive Equalization Adaptive equalizers are amplifiers that shape frequency response to compensate for attenuation and phase error. Adaptive equalization requires that the modems learn line characteristics and do so by sending probes and looking at the return signals. The equalizer then knows how it must amplify signals to get a nice, flat frequency response. The greater the dynamic range, the more complex the equalization. ADSL requires 50 dB of dynamic range, complicating adaptive equalization. Only with recent advances in digital signal processing (number crunching) has it become possible to have such equalization in relatively small packaging. Adaptive equalization is required for CAP because noise characteristics vary significantly across the frequency passband. Adaptive equalization is not needed for DMT because noise characteristics do not vary across any given 4-KHz subband. A major issue in comparing DMT with CAP is determining the point at which the complexity of adaptive equalization surpasses the complexity of DMT’s multiple Fourier transform calculations. This is determined by further implementation experience. Power Consumption Although DMT clearly scales and does not need adaptive equalization, other factors must be considered. First, with 256 channels, DMT has a disadvantage regarding power consumption (and, therefore, cost) when compared with CAP. DMT has a high peak-to-average power ratio because the multiple carriers can constructively interfere to yield a strong signal. DMT has higher computational requirements, resulting in more transistors than the transceiver chips. Numbers are mostly proprietary at this point, but it is estimated that a single transceiver will consume 5 W of power, even with further advances. Power consumption is important because hundreds or thousands (as carriers dearly hope) of transceivers might be at the central office, or CEV. This would require much more heat dissipation than CAP requires. Latency Another issue for DMT is that latencies are somewhat higher than with CAP (15). Because each subband uses only 4 KHz, no bit can travel faster than permitted by a QAM-64. The trade-off between throughput and latency is a historical one in data communications and has normally been settled in the marketplace. Speed DMT appears to have the speed advantage over CAP. Because narrow carriers have relatively few equalization problems, more aggressive modulation techniques can be used on each channel. For CAP to achieve comparable bit rates, it might be necessary to use more bandwidth, far beyond 1 MHz. This creates new problems associated with high frequencies on wires and would reduce CAP’s current advantage in power consumption. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-6 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Additional DSL Technologies ADSL Standards and Associations The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Working Group T1E1. 4 recently approved an ADSL standard at rates up to 6. 1 Mbps (DMT/ANSI Standard T1. 413). The European Technical Standards Institute (ETSI) contributed an annex to T1. 413 to reflect European requirements. T1. 413 currently embodies a single terminal interface at the premises end. Issue II expands the standard to include a multiplexed interface at the premises end, protocols for configuration and network management, and other improvements. The ATM Forum and the Digital Audio-Visual Council (DAVIC) have both recognized ADSL as a physical layer transmission protocol for UTP media. Additional DSL Technologies This section discusses the following DSL technologies: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ SDSL HDSL HDSL-2 G. SHDSL ISDN Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) VDSL SDSL Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) is a rate-adaptive version of HDSL and, like HDSL, is symmetric. It allows equal bandwidth downstream from an NSP’s central office to the customer site as upstream from the subscriber to the central office. SDSL supports data only on a single line and does not support analog calls. SDSL uses 2B1Q line coding and can transmit up to 1. 54 Mbps to and from a subscriber, or can be configured to offer a variable range of bandwidth up to 1. 45 Mbps. The symmetry that SDSL offers, combined with always-on access (which eliminates call setup), makes it a favorable WAN technology for small to medium businesses and branch offices, and can be an affordable alternative to dedicated leased lines and Frame Relay services. Because traffic is symmetrical, file transfer, web hosting, and distance-learning applications can effectively be implemented with SDSL. HDSL Originally developed by Bellcore, high bit-rate DSL (HDSL)/T1/E1 technologies have been standardized by ANSI in the United States and by ETSI in Europe. The ANSI standard covers two-pair T1 transmission, with a data rate of 784 kbps on each twisted pair. ETSI standards exist both for a two-pair E1 system, with each pair carrying 1168 kbps, and a three-pair E1 system, with 784 kbps on each twisted pair. HDSL became popular because it is a better way of provisioning T1 or E1 over twisted-pair copper lines than the long-used technique known as Alternative Mark Inversion (AMI). HDSL uses less bandwidth and requires no repeaters up to the CSA range. By using adaptive line equalization and 2B1Q modulation, HDSL transmits 1. 544 Mbps or 2. 048 Mbps in bandwidth ranging from 80ntrast to the 1. 5 MHz required by AMI. (AMI is still the encoding protocol used for the majority of T1. ) Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-7 Chapter 21 Additional DSL Technologies Digital Subscriber Line T1 service can be installed in a day for less than $1,000 by installing HDSL modems at each end of the line. Installation via AMI costs much more and takes more time because of the requirement to add repeaters between the subscriber and the CO. Depending on the length of the line, the cost to add repeaters for AMI could be up to $5,000 and could take more than a week. HDSL is heavily used in cellular telephone buildouts. Traffic from the base station is backhauled to the CO using HDSL in more than 50 percent of installations. Currently, the vast majority of new T1 lines are provisioned with HDSL. However, because of the embedded base of AMI, less than 30 percent of existing T1 lines are provisioned with HDSL. HDSL does have drawbacks. First, no provision exists for analog voice because it uses the voice band. Second, ADSL achieves better speeds than HDSL because ADSL’s asymmetry deliberately keeps the crosstalk at one end of the line. Symmetric systems such as HDSL have crosstalk at both ends. HDSL-2 HDSL-2 is an emerging standard and a promising alternative to HDSL. The intention is to offer a symmetric service at T1 speeds using a single-wire pair rather than two pairs. This will enable it to operate for a larger potential audience. It will require more aggressive modulation, shorter distances (about 10,000 feet), and better phone lines. Much of the SDSL equipment in the market today uses the 2B1Q line code developed for Integrated Services Digital Network. The Bell companies have insisted that using this SDSL at speeds higher than 768 kbps can cause interference with voice and other services that are offered on copper wire within the same wire bundle. The biggest advantage of HDSL-2, which was developed to serve as a standard by which different vendors’ equipment could interoperate, is that it is designed not to interfere with other services. However, HDSL-2 is full rate only, offering services only at 1. 5 Mbps. G. SHDSL G. SHDSL is a standards-based, multirate version of HDSL-2 and offers symmetrical service. The advantage of HDSL-2, which was developed to serve as a standard by which different vendors’ equipment could interoperate, is that it is designed not to interfere with other services. However, the HDSL-2 standard addresses only services at 1. 5 Mbps. Multirate HDSL-2 is part of Issue 2 of the standard known as G. SHDSL, and is ratified by the ITU. G. SHDSL builds upon the benefits of HDSL-2 by offering symmetrical rates of 2. 3 Mbps. ISDN Digital Subscriber Line ISDN digital subscriber line (IDSL) is a cross between ISDN and xDSL. It is like ISDN in that it uses a single-wire pair to transmit full-duplex data at 128 kbps and at distances of up to RRD range. Like ISDN, IDSL uses a 2B1Q line code to enable transparent operation through the ISDN â€Å"U† interface. Finally, the user continues to use existing CPE (ISDN BRI terminal adapters, bridges, and routers) to make the CO connections. The big difference is from the carrier’s point-of-view. Unlike ISDN, ISDL does not connect through the voice switch. A new piece of data communications equipment terminates the ISDL connection and shuts it off to a router or data switch. This is a key feature because the overloading of central office voice switches by data users is a growing problem for telcos. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-8 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Summary The limitation of ISDL is that the customer no longer has access to ISDN signaling or voice services. But for Internet service providers, who do not provide a public voice service, ISDL is an interesting way of using POTS dial service to offer higher-speed Internet access, targeting the embedded base of more than five million ISDN users as an initial market. VDSL Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) transmits high-speed data over short reaches of twisted-pair copper telephone lines, with a range of speeds depending on actual line length. The maximum downstream rate under consideration is between 51 and 55 Mbps over lines up to 1000 feet (300 m) in length. Downstream speeds as low as 13 Mbps over lengths beyond 4000 feet (1500 m) are also common. Upstream rates in early models will be asymmetric, just like ADSL, at speeds from 1. 6 to 2. 3 Mbps. Both data channels will be separated in frequency from bands used for basic telephone service and Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), enabling service providers to overlay VDSL on existing services. Currently, the two high-speed channels are also separated in frequency. As needs arise for higher-speed upstream channels or symmetric rates, VDSL systems may need to use echo cancellation. Summary ASDL technology is asymmetric, allowing more bandwidth for downstream than upstream data flow. This asymmetric technology combined with always-on access makes ASDL ideal for users who typically download much more data than they send. An ASDL modem is connected to both ends of a twisted-pair telephone line to create three information channels: a high-speed downstream channel, a medium-speed duplex channel, and a basic telephone service channel. ADSL modems create multiple channels by dividing the available bandwidth of a telephone line using either frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) or echo cancellation. Both techniques split off a 4-kHz region for basic telephone service at the DC end of the band Synchronous Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL) provides variable, symmetric, high-speed data communication up to 1. 54 Mbps. But SDSL doesn’t allow analog on the same line, as ADSL does. SDSL uses 2B1Q line coding, a technology employed in ISDN and T1 services. SDSL is a viable business option because of its capability to transmit high-speed data over longer distances from the CO and because of its ease of deployment made possible by its spectral compatibility. High Bit-Rate DSL (HDSL) is a symmetric version of DSL that uses 2B1Q like SDSL, but over two-wire pairs. HDSL is targeted at business deployment because it offers full-rate symmetrical 1. 5 Mbps service. HDSL-2 is a standards-based version of HDSL offering symmetrical 1. 5 Mbps service like HDSL, but with a single twisted pair of wires. HDSL is full-rate and does not offer variable rates. G. SHDSL does offer multirate service with symmetrical speeds of up to 2. 3 Mbps. ISDN digital subscriber line (IDSL) is similar in many ways to ISDN. The primary difference is that IDSL is always on and can reach speeds up to 512 kbps with compression. IDSL uses 2B1Q line coding and does not support analog. On the other hand, IDSL does allow data communications over longer distances than other DSL options (up to 26,000 feet) and is considerably less expensive than ISDN service, in most cases. Because IDSL supports existing ISDN CPE, it makes it easy to convert from ISDN to IDSL. Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-9 Chapter 21 Review Questions Digital Subscriber Line Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL) transmits high-speed data over short distances through twisted-pair copper telephone lines. VDSL technology is still in the definition stage, but additional research is required before it can be standardized. VSDL and ADSL are similar technologies. However, although VSDL transmits data at nearly 10 times the rate of ADSL, ADSL is the more complex transmission technology. Review Questions Q – Name the current versions of DSL technology. A – ADSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL-2, G. SHDL, IDSL, and VDSL. Q – What are the two-line coding methods used for ADSL? A – DMT and CAP. Q – Which versions of DSL offer symmetrical service? A – SDSL, HDSL, and HDSL-2. Q – What symmetrical version of DSL offers multirate service over a single pair of wire? A – G. SHDSL Q – How far of a reach can IDSL achieve from the CO? A – 26,000 feet. Q – What downstream and upstream rates are proposed for VDSL? A – The maximum downstream rate under consideration is between 51 and 55 Mbps over lines up to 1000 feet (300 m) in length. Downstream speeds as low as 13 Mbps over lengths beyond 4000 feet (1500 m) are also common. Upstream rates in early models will be asymmetric, just like ADSL, at speeds from 1. 6 to 2. 3 Mbps. For More Information ADSL Forum (http://www. adsl. com/) Cisco DSL Depot (http://www. isco. com/warp/public/779/servpro/promotions/dsldepot/) Glossary Terms †¢ G. SHDSL – Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line. The upstream data rate is different from the downstream (typically the downstream is greater than the upstream). It is applicable to many DSL technologies offered today; however, this term typically assumes DMT as defined in the ANSI T1. 413 specification. CPE – Customer premises equipment, including devices such as CSU/DSUs, modems, and ISDN terminal adapters, required to provide an electromagnetic termination for wide-area network circuits before connecting to the router or access server. This equipment was historically provided by the telephone company, but it is now typically provided by the customer in North American markets. †¢ Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-10 1-58705-001-3 Chapter 21 Digital Subscriber Line Glossary Terms †¢ CSU/DSU – Channel service unit/data service unit. Provides electromagnetic termination of the digital (WAN) signal at the customer premises. Performs line conditioning and equalization functions, and responds to loopback commands sent from the central office. In North America, the customer supplies the device providing CSU/DSU functionality; outside North America, the telecommunications service provider usually provides this device. DMT – Discrete Multitone is the ANSI specified modulation technique for G. SHDSL (ANSI-T1. 413). DMT is theoretically capable of more speed than CAP. The key providers of DMT are Alcatel, Amati, Aware/ADI, and Orckit. Downstream – Refers to the transmission of data from the central office (CO or COE) to the customer premise equipment (CPE). HDSL – High-speed Digital Subscriber Line. This is a symmetrical modulation technique that uses two or three pairs of wires. HDSL2 – High-speed Digital Subscriber Line. This is a symmetrical modulation technique that can achieve speeds in the T1 (1. 5 Mbps) range using one copper pair. POTS – Plain old telephone service. QAM – Quadrature amplitude phase modulation. RG. SHDSL – Rate Adaptive Digital Subscriber Line. This refers to the CAP2 and QAM technologies that use variable data rates to maximize the utilization of various loop lengths. SDSL – Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line. This indicates a subscriber line service that utilizes the same data rate for upstream and downstream. This term is applicable to MDSL and HDSL technologies. Upstream – Refers to the transmission of data from the customer premises equipment (CPE) to the central office equipment (CO or COE). VDSL – Very-High-Data-Rate Digital Subscriber Line. This is a high-speed asymmetrical service in the 10 to 25 Mbps range, typically limited to less than 5,000 feet. The targeted application for this technology is a hybrid fiber copper system (fiber to the neighborhood). †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Internetworking Technologies Handbook 1-58705-001-3 21-11 Chapter 21 Glossary Terms Digital Subscriber Line Internetworking Technologies Handbook 21-12 1-58705-001-3 How to cite Digital Subscriber Line, Papers

Test for reducing sugars Essay Example

Test for reducing sugars Paper Below is the flowchart to show the relationship between monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides (complex sugars) and polysaccharides (e. g. starch and glycogen). Important things to note: (a) Glycosidic bonds are chemical bonds that hold / join molecules of monosaccharides together. (b) Chemical formulae of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. (c) Polysaccharides are macromolecules, meaning they are very large molecules (made up of many many small monosaccharide molecules joined together in straight or branched chains). (d) Examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides. Test for reducing sugars (Benedicts Test) Given an unknown solution, you are to find out if it contains reducing sugars so you have to carry out the reducing sugar test (Benedicts test). NOTE: What are reducing sugars A reducing sugar (all monosaccharides and some disaccharides) will produce a brick-red ppt when boiles with Benedict s solution. Non-reducing sugar: Sucrose Procedures: 1. To 2 cm 3 of the unknown solution in a test-tube, add an EQUAL VOLUME (that is the same volume as the unknown solution used: 2 cm 3 ) of Benedicts solution (blue). 2. Shake the mixture and heat it by immersing the test tube into a boiling water bath (beaker of boiling water) for 5 minutes. 3. Observe the appearance of the heated mixture after 5 minutes. Observations: During the heating process, the solution changes from clear-blue to cludy green, then yellow and finally to a brick-red / orange-red precipitate (ppt). Brick-red / Orange-red / Red ppt indicates the presence of reducing sugars. In the Control Expt. above, water is used to replace the unknown solution. Since water does not contain any reducing sugars, the mixture remains blue after boiling, indicating the absence of reducing sugars. We will write a custom essay sample on Test for reducing sugars specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Test for reducing sugars specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Test for reducing sugars specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Something extra Benedicts solution is blue due to the presence of copper (II) sulphate. A reducing sugar is a sugar with reducing properties. When a reducing sugar is heated with Benedicts oslution, the blue copper (II) sulphate (soluble)is reduced to form a brick-red ppt of copper (I) oxide (insoluble). DO NOT OVERHEAT your mixture after the appearance of the red ppt cos it will turn dark brown then black and these are incorrect color observations! Test for starch (Iodine Test) Procedures: 1. Add a few drops of iodine solution (yellow-brown) onto any substance (liquid / solid). 2. Observe any color changes. Observations: The iodine solution that stains the substance changes from yellow-brown to blue-black / black , indicating the presence of starch. In the Control Expt. , the iodine solution remains yellow-brown, indicating the absence of starch. NOTE: Based on O Level Cambridge standards, you can only use the colors blue-black or black but NOT blue to describe the color change. Saturated Fats vs Unsaturated Fats 2 types of fats . 1. Animal fats (e. g. butter) are saturated fats . 2. Vegetable oils and fish oils are unsaturated fats . Dangers of saturated fats in your diet .. Saturated fats in the blood can be readily converted into cholesterol . High level of blood cholesterol would lead to the deposition of cholesterol on the inner walls of blood vessels . This hardens the blood vessels and decreases the size of lumen (space) of blood vessels , thus decreasing the flow of blood (increasing the blood pressure) through these clogged vessels. This increases the risk of heart disease (if the blood vessels that supply blood to the heart muscles are clogged). Dietician recommends Take less animal fats. Replace butter with margarine. Test for fats (Ethanol emulsion test) Test for fats in liquid food Given an unknown solution, you are to find out if it contains fats Procedures: 1. Place 2 cm 3 of the unknown solution into a dry test tube . Add about 2-5 cm 3 of ethanol (alcohol) into the test-tube. 2. Shake vigorously for about 1 minute (allowing time for the ethanol to dissolve / extract out the fats). 3. Pour the mixture into another test-tube containing 2-5 cm 3 of water . Shake the mixture thoroughly. Observations: Upon mixing with water, a cloudy white emulsion is formed, indicating the presence of fats. In the absence of fats, the mixture should remain clear and colorless. Test for fats in solid foods Given peanut seeds, you are to find out whether they contain fats Procedures: 1. Cut the peanut seeds into small pieces and place them into a dry test-tube . Note: Cutting them into smaller pieces increases the surface area of the food for the extraction of oil by ethanol and when you transfer the food pieces into the test-tube, please use the forceps and knife (minimise the contact of the food with your fingers cos you do not want to contaminate your specimen! ) 2. Add 2-5 cm 3 of ethanol (alcohol) into the test-tube and shake vigorously for 1 minute. 3. Allow the solid food particles to settle at the bottom of the test-tube. Decant (that is pour out only the liquid portion of the mixture, leaving the solid particles behind) the ethanol into another test-tube containing 2-5 cm 3 of water . Shake the mixture thoroughly. Observations: A cloudy white emulsion is formed, indicating the presence of fats. What is decant? Allow the solid particles to settle down at the bottom of the test-tube, then pour out only the liquid portion. Know more about proteins Chemical structure of an amino acid: Formation of a peptide bond: Condensation reaction between the NH 2 group of one amino acid and the COOH group of another amino acid. Relationship between amino acid, dipeptide, polypeptide and protein: NOTE: A protein molecule is formed by one or more folded polypeptide chain/s. A short story of how proteins in your food is broken down completely into amino acids and then absorbed into your bloodstream and taken into your body cells to form new proteins .. Denaturation or killing of proteins Folding / coiling of long polypeptide chains will give the protein molecule a distinctive 3-dimemsional configuration / shape . This distinct shape is important in determining the specific function of the protein molecule. This distinct shape is maintained by weak hydrogen cross-bonds that keeps the chains folded in a specific manner. Heat, acids and alkalis break these weak cross-bonds, thus the unfolding of the polypeptide chains and the loss of the distinct shape . When this happens, the protein can no longer function due to the distortion of its shape, and this is when we say the protein is DENATURED . Test for proteins (Biuret Test) Given an unknown solution, you are to find out whether it contains proteins Procedures: 1. To 2 cm 3 of unknown solution in a test-tube, add 1 cm 3 of sodium hydroxide solution . Shake thoroughly. 2. Add 1% copper sulphate solution (light blue), drop by drop , shaking the mixture after each drop . 3. Observe color changes. Observation: A violet / lilac color is formed, indicating the presence of proteins. In the Control Expt. the mixture remains light blue, indicating the absence of proteins. Complete proteins VS Incomplete proteins The proportion of protein in plant food is much lower than that in animal food . Proteins that come from animals are complete proteins . What are complete proteins? Complete proteins are proteins that contain all essential amino acids . Then what are essential amino acids? Essential amino acids are amino acids that the body cannot synthesize/make and must be obtained from our daily diet . Proteins from plants are incomplete proteins which lack some of the essential amino acids. For vegetarians to obtain the proper amounts of all essential amino acids, they must eat a mixture of 2 or more incomplete protein foods at each meal. Sources of complete proteins Sources of incomplete proteins Main functions of the 3 major classes of food Mian function of proteins: Main function of fats: Energy values of food Table below shows the energy values of each main class of food.