The Government Must Maintain Crucial Relationships With...

The government must maintain crucial relationships with the society. The leaders uphold the basic rights by guaranteeing people s security and equitable distribution of resources. The Chinese government has implemented several policies that enabled the cooperation between the state and the social organizations. The social organizations, such as NGOs, have a significant role in connecting the state and the society and in enhancing their relationship. They are the extensions of the government to the certain areas that the government couldn’t reach, helping the government better meet the society’s needs. In The Advance of the Party: Transformation or Takeover of Urban Grassroots Society? the author noted that there was immense†¦show more content†¦Although the government appears to exact control in the social organizations, their relationships are said to be symbiotic. The social organizations always find ways to negotiate with the government on how to meet the interests of their members (â€Å"Negotiating the state: The development of social organizations in China†, p. 125). The government is making efforts to involve the society in the developments through the social organizations. Wang and Carl explain that the increasing social unrest is a force generated from communist rule, increasing the need for the government to respond the people’s needs. Social organizations have been used in the control of unrest of people created by previous leaders through the introduction of reforms dating back to 1990’s. In light of the challenges of dealing with societa l unrest, the government’s response was to involve society in major decisions, thus initiating the formation of social organizations. In the article â€Å"The Rise of the Chinese Security State,† Wang and Carl mention that there was establishment of special offices for dealing with social stability, an example of these special offices being the anti-cult departments; and those special offices being predecessors of social organizations. In democratic nations, such as the United States, each political party has to come with its policies and manifestos.

The Legality of Use of Force against Iraq in 1991 and 2003 Free Essays

string(62) " any interference may hinder the preparedness to expend them\." Abstract An international law permits anticipatory self-defence in case of an imminent attack. The pre-emptive application of force is double-edged, as any action to the contrary of the UN Security Council is considered to be a breach, while early intervention is an infringement of the rights of the state. Iraq attacked Kuwait in the early 90s and this act led to an imminent attack on Iraq by the UK, USA and East Asian countries[1]. We will write a custom essay sample on The Legality of Use of Force against Iraq in 1991 and 2003 or any similar topic only for you Order Now This was following the authorisation of the UN Security Council to promote security and peace in the area. More specifically, this paper will focus on the circumstances that triggered an attack on Iraq and its implications. The present paper discusses the legality of the USA attack on Iraq. In addition, the paper highlights those doctrines employed by various nations in ensuring that peace and security are maintained, worldwide. The paper comments on the impact of the use of force in Iraq. The present paper thus critically compares and evaluates the legality of use of force against Iraq, in 1991 and in 2003, from an international legal perspective. 1.1 Introduction â€Å"The right to life† is a key virtue and fundamental principle, in times of war and peace. Moreover, humanitarian law and human rights jointly respect human dignity and human values and it is difficult, therefore, to enjoy fundamental rights when a human being loses his or her life. The absolute state to the right to life is faced with challenges, with the need to stabilise and maintain law and order in society, which can at times lead to the use of force[1]. The civilians and the members of the armed forces enjoy the fundamental right to life; however; the right is limited to the societal demands under which humanitarian law operates. This implies that the right to life is absolute; however, a normative structure should be set in place to account for any loss of life, to ensure social stability and order throughout society. International law limits the use of force to prevent a person from losing his or her life. Furthermore, The European Convention is the pioneer of the limitation for Protection of Human Rights[2] and Fundamental Freedom, which asserts that there should be no extra force other than absolute force when safeguarding a person from unlawful violence or when quelling a riot, although the Convention does provide exceptions which result from lawful war acts. This paper also focuses on the circumstances that led to the attacks on Iraq, with theUK, the USA and certain East Asian countries being the countries which participated in the attacks[3]. The paper then goes on to develop an argument regarding the legality of the force which was applied in Iraq. It is contended that the USA government under President Bush adopted a pre-emptive self-defence mechanism and the paper alludes to the humanitarian intervention as another method of self-defence. The research concludes by comparing, evaluating and arguing both for and against the legality of the use of force against Iraq, in 1991 and in 2003, from an international legal perspective. 1.2 The Circumstances under which Force is applied 1.2.1 Possession of Nuclear Weapons International law has evaluated circumstances under which armed conflict is considered lawful, especially for the purposes of self-defence. Under international law, Article 2(4) of the United Nations Security Council, states that the threat to possess or use nuclear weapons is unlawful[4]. This, therefore, implies that the rogue states which act to the contrary of Article 2(4) of international law are operating unlawfully. A rogue state may, however, use weapons mainly for the purpose of self-defence. The rogue nations are also supported by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) which asserts that in the case of a credible deterrence, there is need for the use of (or intent to use) nuclear weapons. The law also contravenes the fact that the threat to use a weapon is unlawful under Article 2(4)[5]. However, the intention of the state to use weapons may be considered lawful, if it is aimed at self-defence. In addition, signatory states are required to comply with the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty, which outlines three major principles, namely: disarmament, an inalienable right to nuclear use and non-proliferation of nuclear energy. The treaty defines two categories of states: states which are ascribed and use nuclear weapons (Nuclear Weapon States-NWS) and nations that are not allowed to own, manufacture and use nuclear weapons (Non-Nuclear Weapon States-NNWS). Nevertheless, certain states may be persuaded to enter the Nuclear Proliferation Treaty (NPT), in order to signal their nuclear preferences[6]. Joining NPT is like a commitment which can ruin a non-cooperating state by tainting its reputational position, due to violation of the treaty. However, the possession of (or use of) nuclear weapons is lawful, despite a state being a member or a non-member of the NPT. It is argued in this paper that the inception of NPT is a threat to the International Community and that the provision for states to own and use nuclear weapons has created a significant â€Å"loophole† as member states can lawfully own uranium and plutonium which can be used in manufacturing nuclear weapons, in a short period of time. However, it would appear that certain aberrations have been committed against the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), with few parties having ratified an additional protocol towards NPT which ensures that state members must comply with the IAEA safeguards[7]. The IAEA, for instance, considered Iran to be against NPT obligations. This forced the IAEA to set up transparency measures to ensure that there is a distinct weapon recognition in accordance with its nuclear programmes[8]. Moreover, the United Nations Security Council has resolved that countries should not use uranium, but should comply with IAEA requirements. This implies that rogue states possessing nuclear capacity are at risk, due to the ICJ resolution which states that possession of weapons may justify the extent to which any interference may hinder the preparedness to expend them. You read "The Legality of Use of Force against Iraq in 1991 and 2003" in category "Essay examples" This also implies that rogue nations are a potential risk as they may easily attack other states. Arguably, therefore, nuclear proliferation is a major source of threat which has increased the potential for nuclear terrorism. 1.2.2 Self-defence Article 51 of international law grants every state the right and power against nuclear attacks[9]. Furthermore, the charter has no prejudice, if one of its members is a subject to an attack, thus it is mandated to grant it the right to self-defence, where sSovereign states are entitled to the right and it is also part of the customary law. An armed attack is one of the conditions which can promote self-defence under the international law charter. The state, therefore, has to define aggression based on Article 3(b) which states that an armed attack is the use of a weapon by a nation which is against the integrity of the other nation. Moreover,, the use of nuclear weapons against another state is a licence to self-defence. International law does not recognise non-state participants in supporting a foreign power. Likewise, those states that support non-state involvement in nuclear weapons’ activities may be sanctioned for their actions. Based on the principles of impunity, a state which sponsors or supports terrorists in any way in conducting an armed attack is considered an armed attacker[10]. This means that, if a nation supports terrorists with nuclear weapons and facilitates them in conducting an attack on another country, the victim nation has a right to act in self-defence against the harbouring country. International law states that for a state to conduct an anticipatory act of self-defence, the attack must be imminent. It therefore implies that, for the self-defence to be considered lawful, there has to be a certain time-scale element which needs to be satisfied, i.e. the act of aggression has to be very close and imminent. Therefore for a self-defence to be considered lawful, there has to be an imminent nuclear attack on the recipient state. Furthermore, international law also states that for self-defence to be considered lawful, it has to be proportional and necessary[11]. This implies that a necessary act has to encompass an armed forces attack. The charter also reiterates that for self-defence to be lawful, the armed attack has to be continuous. In addition, the amount of force incurred must be similar to the amount of force used to ascertain a proportional self-defence. Lawful self-defence should also conform to the humanitarian law which states that self-defence ought to adhere to the Laws of the Armed Forces. The humanity principle deters unnecessary suffering and superfluous injury; the law also prohibits the use of excessive force, to the extent of causing incidental loss of innocent lives, to military advantage. This shows that there are numerous circumstances under which states are allowed to use force. 1.3 Background Information to the Attacks on Iraq The UK, the USA and East Asian countries invaded Iraq, in 2003; however, the reasons behind the attack are still not clearly defined. Several policy justifications have been put forward. For example, the US government alluded to the need for the US to protect its Iraqi allies and the world at large. The US government also justified its actions, based on the threat of terrorism. The US also adhered to the UN Security Council’s orders to disarm Iraq. The Bush government reported to Congress that its actions were lawful, as this was a pre-emptive act of self-defence. The US government reported that the Iraqi invasion was an authorisation of the Security Council. The Security Council thus released Resolution 678 which authorised several states to oppose Iraq from attacking Kuwait and to ensure security and peace in the area. It is evident, however, that Iraq went against the UN-mandate for a cease fire in the 1990-91 war which the US claim that such a breach against a cease fire w as sufficient to reignite earlier authorisation[12]. The invasion of Iraq by the US, UK, Australia and Polish states in 2003 lasted from 19th March to 1st May with the main body of the attack happening between 19th March and 9th April. A further 36 countries were involved after this period however the dominant statements were made by the US. It was stated by the US President and British Prime Minister in combination that the mission was to â€Å"disarm Iraq of weapons of mass destruction, to end Saddam Hussein’s support for terrorism and to free the Iraqi people† (George Bush, Whitehouse Archives). This indicates the at least attempted reliance on the Security Council Resolution as the basis for the action, at least initially. 1.3.1 Legal Basis for Invasion There would appear to be several reasons behind the US and other states’ invasion of Iraq: first, the invasion aimed to address and prevent the Iraq invasion of Kuwait, in 1990. This forced the Security Council to adopt Resolution 678 which authorised all willing UN member states to restore security and peace in the area, using all necessary means. Secondly, the Security Council adopted Resolution 687 which imposed obligations on Iraq, such as disarmament that was aimed at a cease-fire; Resolution 687 failed to terminate authorisation, but instead suspended the use of force on Iraq. Iraq failed to disclose its disarmament obligations and thus breached a â€Å"material obligation†. This led to the Security Council adopting Resolution 1441, in October 2002. The resolution was a final warning for Iraq to respond positively to the disarmament requirements or face serious consequences. The US legal theory states that a material breach against Resolution 687 grants the use of force and eliminates a cease-fire[13]. The Security Council later revised the authorisation, in order to apply force. The Council granted the US and UK armies the authority to apply force against Iraq. The US army and other allies’ invasion of Iraq was lawful, based on the fact that Iraq failed to comply with the extension of time. The invasion act was also lawful, as US had strived to defend threats from Iraq and to ensure security and peace in the region. 1.3.2 The Disarmament Process Inspection in Iraq took a considerable period of time from 1991 to 1998. There was no inspection for four years, but in November 2002 the inspection resumed. The inspection in Iraq was aimed at verifying the disarmament process[14]. However, Security Council resolutions have differed, over the years, in terms of the approach and emphasis. For instance, Resolution 687 aimed at ensuring a cease-fire for the Gulf War, in 1991, which had five elements[15]. More specifically, the resolutions focused on the disarmament process in Iraq which demanded that Iraq declare its programs related to weapons of mass destruction. The resolution also aimed at ensuring that Iraq verified its declaration via an IAEA and the United Nations Special Commission (UNSCOM)[16]. The resolution demanded that Iraq cooperate in the process. It is argued here that inspection creates confidence in the disarmament process. Iraq, however, was reluctant to accept the demands of the Security Council and the declaration and verification process never materialised, as Iraq did not cooperate. Lack of support from the Iraqi side led to increased time taken undertaking the disarmament process and Iraq was sanctioned, due to the lack of cooperation which led to the apparent starvation of its residents, in the process[17]. Resolution 687 resulted, to a certain extent, in the disarmament process and the process, in turn, led to destruction of numerous crude weapons. Under the supervision of UNSCOM, several weapons were destroyed, before 1994. In 1996, large biological weapons were destroyed, following authorisation by UNSCOM. IAEA removed extensive fissionable materials and destroyed numerous nuclear infrastructures. Later, in 1999, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1284, with 4 abstentions. Resolution 1284 supplemented the 1991 resolution[18]. After Iraq started cooperating, much progress was made in the disarmament process and all the sanctions were suspended. Iraq, however, rejected inspection for three years, but due to pressure from the US Arab States Secretary General and other member states, it accepted inspection, unconditionally[19]. From the above research, it is evident that the UK, the US and certain East Asian countries attacked Iraq, in 1991 and in 2003 and there were several factors which prompted the attack in Iraq. As noted in the previous section, the disarmament of Iraq was seen to be at the centre of the 2003 invasion. Since the 1980s there have been general concerns that Iraq were holding extensive nuclear weapons with evidence that Iraq had used these weapons during the Iran-Iraq war. In the immediate run up to the 2003 invasion the US had called for a change of regime in the country and had threatened to use military force if Iraq refused to get rid of all weapons of mass destruction or provide sufficient evidence that it had none. After failing to reach an agreement an Emergency Summit was held in March between the UK and US to discuss the next step. During this time the US stated that it felt that it was now necessary to use force in order to ensure the compliance of Iraq with the UN Resolution from the inspectors. 1.4 Legality of the use of Force 1.4.1 Global Threats Since 1990, states such as the US and the UK have focused on military interventions, in variousl regions, with several states justifying the use of armed force in Iraq, in 1991 and in 2003, due to global threats[20]. Arguably, this is a superficial view which suggests that states were lawful in exercising military might in Iraq. On the other hand, the post-Cold War presented a threat to US interests, due to a power imbalance, thus its government was forced to ensure that it intervened in the emerging global crises. Western economic interests are also at risk, due to political instability, where Western nations rely on imported oil from the Middle East, thus requiring political stability to create a friendly environment for the global market. There is an argument to be had that the reliance of the US and other states facilitated the invasion of Iraq, to ensure both internal security and to prevent external threats. For example, it is evident that Iraq presents a threat to the stability of oil producing states in the region[21]. Moreover, a terrorist group called Al-Qaeda poses another type of challenge. The group aims to replace the Sharia Law which governs the Islamic Chalifate[22]. It is also evident that the two threats are seemingly closely connected. The Al-Qaeda group has blamed the US government for infringing the rights of those within Islamic holy places by positioning its troops in Saudi Arabia. However, the elimination of Saddam Hussein by the US army has somewhat reduced Al-Qaeda ide ologies. In the early 90s, it became obvious that security interests had evolved from economic interests, with the US government now becoming the major target for Al-Qaeda. The terrorist group feels that war over the US will restore Islamic Chalifate and will also end Islamic adherence[23]. Proliferation of weapons is a major threat to the US and Western governments to support terrorism and enhance an aggressive history within governments. After the fall of the Soviet regime, humanitarianism is another looming motivation which has boosted military intervention; hegemony is also associated with responsibility which is a major boost for the US and certain European governments to focus on manmade disasters. The US and European governments are forced to practise justice, despite using force. For example, the US government was mandated to reduce suffering in Northern Iraq, in 1991[24]. This was aimed at protecting the Kurds and alleviating want and suffering in the region. There is a perceived general agreement among USA, UK and East Asia states which invade rogue states. This is due to security, justice and economic stability. The US economy relies on a stable global trade and external conflict is, therefore, a major threat. However, there are several responses to the intervention based on threats among human activists, rogue states and terrorism regimes. It is now a common belief that the US and some parts of Asia and Europe are not willing to accept that Al-Qaeda’s reaction is due to military actions. Terrorist acts by Al-Qaeda were also used to justify the break from traditional norms and constraints against international law. However, it is argued here that Europe prefers to use adjudication through the use of universal jurisdiction statutes which help in punishing the perpetrators of mass violence[25]. Europe also supports the adoption of international law for dealing with perpetrators; thus, these differences in opinion and attitude have led to vital ramifications to which several people adhere. It is argued here that there is substantial merit in creating a situation whereby there is one overall legal system that is not led by any particular nation. Although the background arguments presented by the US and the UK in relation to disarmament are strong, there is at least an argument that they have used their dominant political position to assert their rights in a way that would not have been possible by another state. Creating a level and unified playing field is therefore a crucial issue to be addressed in the opinion of the author, rather than the need to consider whether the US was justified in this particular instance. 1.4.2 Economic Stability and Security as a Public Good The USA has a strong motive and military which are aimed at maintaining global stability. This, therefore, serves the interests of various parties. Global stability constitutes public good which encompasses non-rivalry and non-exclusivity. Stability and security is a public good, as everyone can enjoy them and avoid causing inconvenience to each other. This justifies the fact that the US contributes to a collective problem, as very few who enjoy the good will be willing to contribute towards its production. This also applies to global security, where the USA has the ability to deal and engage in combat where threats to stability are concerned, thus other â€Å"small† nations benefit without incurring any costs[26]. Several â€Å"smaller† nations view the contribution of the US towards NATO as biased. The super powers supported the deterrence strategy by using destruction as a means of gaining stability which the â€Å"smaller† members also enjoyed the benefits of without making any contribution[27]. Later, these â€Å"smaller† members opted to participate in contributing towards security demands. In practice, there are huge hurdles for collective action due to the fact that the deterrence available is limited. The two super powers coordinated very well towards deterrence, using little costs to enhance public good. However, the efficacy of deterrence and mutuality produces the incorporation of other member states which lacks a stabilising factor. Nowadays, deterrence does not apply when there is any destabilising agent against the status quo. This is another aspect of public good, which alludes to the tendency of states to attempt to hang their actions on supporting the publ ic good. The USA which takes the lead in this case contributes what it can afford. This can also lead to smaller contributions for public good. This state implies that public good is underfunded and it poses a great threat to global stability. 1.4.3 The Scope of Military Action The US and other member states, ceased force on Iraq, in 1990, after they managed to liberate Kuwait; this was contrary to Resolution 678 which granted the authorisation for the participating states to use force. However, other resolutions after 678 did not allow the US military force to enter Baghdad, following ther repulsion of the Iraqi soldiers in Kuwait[28]. The US forces acted within the Security Council Mandate, as they did not proceed to Baghdad, in 1991. Moreover, there was an international consensus concerning the limitation of troops to proceed to Baghdad. The UN Charter protects the political and territorial rights of any state; therefore, the US acted within its mandate, as its main aim for invading Iraq was to liberate Kuwait and to ensure that there is security and peace in the region. According to Murphy, there were no instances of the UN violating the sovereignty of Iraq[29]. Furthermore, several states which participated in the war aimed at liberating Kuwait. The UN , therefore, asserts that the use of force in Iraq was due to the fact that Iraq had invaded Kuwait with the use of nuclear weapons, starting the dispute about disarmament. A real difficulty emerges in this discussion as it is felt by the author here that there are difficulties in determining to what extent the dominant states such as the US and the UK should be allowed or indeed required to take the lead in taking action of this nature. Collective action is naturally going to ensure greater support to a particular cause however this falls down somewhat due to the fact that some states simply don’t have the same support. On balance therefore it is suggested here that a central UN decision is appropriate but allowing certain nations to take the lead is a natural and efficient way of ensuring action is taken, provided they are answerable to the underlying structure. 1.5 Anticipatory or Pre-emptive Self-Defence The Bush administration exercised a pre-emptive self-defence doctrine to prevent rogue states fromt flourishing. The US government has received threats from terrorists and opposing states, suggesting that the matter may escalate if force is used unnecessarily or with the perception of unfairness. From an historical point of view, the USA has no pre-emptive record against the other states. This includes the attacks on Iraq. However, the USA have been linked to a pre-emptive military attack in the Cuban missile attack, in 1962, though it was not carried out in a definitive manner[30]. In the recent attacks, the USA has avoided pre-emption in justification of its actions. The Security Council and the General Assembly have condemned Israel for its 1981 bombing which destroyed nuclear reactors in Iraq. Israel, however, defended its stance, alluding that by removing the nuclear reactors, Israel was just exercising its right to self-defence, as stated by the UN Charter. Israel failed to give evidence of any imminent attack by Iraq. Israel, on the other hand, argued that Iraq designed the reactor to develop nuclear bombs which could be used in a war with Israel, as the two nations were in a state of war. The international community, however, rejected Israel’s action. Resolution 487 condemned Israel’s misconduct and violation of the UN charter[31]. Anticipatory self-defence doctrine recognises force as the only justification in an imminent armed attack. Becker argues that common sense is the sure way to test international legal norms, as opposed to textual literalism[32]. This implies that it is awkward for a given nation to wait for another state to attack, before it is entitled to act in self-defence. The pre-emptive doctrine forwarded by Bush goes one step further in terms of anticipatory self-defence. The proposed doctrine advocates for the removal of imminent requirements of attack from the anticipatory self-defence. According to Bush doctrine, a state has a right to self-defence, despite the fact that uncertainty is not catered for in the other nation’s regime or doctrine. This doctrine was deployed in the attack on Iraq, during the Gulf War[33]. This was due to the fact that the Iraqi attack was not imminent, but that the invasion was a strategy aimed at restoring peace. However, the doctrine employed does not exhibit â€Å"certainty† requirements as outlined regarding future armed attacks. Due to changing technologies, it is impossible to respond to imminent attacks that are certain. However, if the UN charter allowed the state to defend itself if they merely felt threatened would open â€Å"loopholes† in the face of violence. Ultimately thjs doctrine can have a huge impact on the stability of the world, where states which adhere to the pre-emptive doctrine act in violation of the UN charter. It is argued here therefore that extreme caution needs to be exercised when working with the doctrine of pre-emption so that there needs to be at least a strong likelihood of force being used and not merely a remote chance at some point in the future. 1.5.1 Unilateral Humanitarian Intervention The fight against terrorism violates human rights in several ways and this has forced the US government to reject â€Å"‘ideas†, in order to restore democracy and to develop free markets and trade. Furthermore, the Security Council has authorised the use of force, specifically for humanitarian use, but this strategy is only envisaged where authorisation has been denied. Military action has promoted humanitarian intervention aimed at rescuing people from human rights’ violation, without the authorisation of the UN Security Council. This is because Article 2(7) prohibits intervention in acts which are considered domestic[34]. The Kosovo Commission has elucidated varied reactions from various states, based on humanitarian intervention. It is evident that states considered the act as legitimate and not illegal. Actions by NATO were conducted on a moral ground. There are several efforts by the General Assembly and the UN to incorporate and recognise humanitarian intervention in its customary law[35]. However, several states maintain that the UN must control and maintain a primacy in controlling conflict resolution. However, smaller nations oppose the strategy to incorporate humanitarian intervention as a means of achieving Western domination. The â€Å"larger† states, on the other hand, oppose the proposal, as they feel that the doctrine will mean that certain states might be assigned the duty to intervene, in the case of a humanitarian crisis. It would seem counterintuitive however to ignore the importance of humanitarian support and assistance which is naturally inherently linked to the issue of self defence. It is argued here that the two are simply indivisible and the UN must necessarily incorporate humanitarian intervention as part of the wider agenda of support overall peace and safety. 1.6 The Extent of the Armed Attacks Conducted against Iraq The attack on Iraq by the US government has been challenged regarding the importance of international law in safeguarding the rights of every state. For example, sceptics allude to the attack as an act of power politics, masquerading under a facade system. An international institution such as the Security Council and international law has failed to intervene against the invasion of Iraq. This is arguably because the Bush government proceeded with its strategy to execute its plans, in 2002. This might imply that the US government only exercised its hegemonic powers as stipulated in its legal theory[36]. Sceptics, however, fail to clarify the behaviour of the actions conducted by the US government during its invasion of Iraq. The critics do not consider those who participated in the decision that led to US invading Iraq (end of sentence?). The critics have also failed to ascertain the role played by international law and the institutions involved, as well as the due process that was followed in developing the plan. It is the opinion of the author of this paper that international law and other bodies must have played a huge role in structuring the debate to decide whether force was necessary in the case of Iraq. This implies that actions by the US government to conduct an attack without persuading the legal theory ought not to be at the discretion of international norms and undermining by the Security Council.[37] 1.7 Compare and Evaluate the Legality of the Use of Force against Iraq, in 1991 and in 2003, from an International Law Perspective Having looked at the issues above it can be seen why there is still no consistent agreement as to whether the use of force in Iraq in 2003 has been considered to be legal or illegal. The invasion in 1991 was seen to be legal due to the UN Resolution 660 being passed that condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the co-illation forces entered Kuwait liberating it from the Iraqi rule. During the 2003 invasion the authority was argued to have come from the combination of SCR 678 (which was the authorisation of force in 1991), SCR 687 which required Iraq to disarm itself and SCR 1441 which stated that Iraq was in fundamental breach of the 1991 cease fire. There was no question that Iraq hadn’t breached the requirements, where the dispute lay however was in whether the use of force used by the US and UK predominately was appropriate in the circumstances. Most notably SCR 1441 did not authorise action by â€Å"all necessary means† as it did in the 678 SCR which authorised the action in 1991. It is this slight distinction of wording that arguably creates the distinction between 1991 and 2003 and presents the greatest challenge for the US and the UK in gathering support for their use of force in 2003. 1.8 Conclusion International law has been cited as wanting due to recent responses to international threats and terrorism. â€Å"Large† nations and super powers have condemned the law as ill-equipped and outdated when they find themselves to be limited in one way or the other. International law is not merely what a particular nation prefers it to be. Moreover, the international community is a large body, thus declarations by one nation cannot alter the legal aspects. This, therefore, means that counter terrorism by some states such as the Bush administration should be critically assessed. It is also difficult to propose a future international stability. Despite terrorism posing a great challenge to global prosperity, the international bodies and law do not provide a discreet solution to these problems[38]. The paper concludes by saying that the attack on Iraq by the US, the UK and other states was a moral obligation. Difficulties do however arise due to the need to rely on the concepts of se lf defence to justify the actions and it is concluded here that whilst the actiosn taken by the UK and US can certainly be morally justified with reasonable strength, a review of the legal basis is needed to ensure that this type of leadership can legitimately be shown by the more powerful nation states in the future. References Adam Roberts, ‘NATO’s â€Å"Humanitarian War† over Kosovo’ (1999) 41 Survival102, 120 Becker Andrew, ‘Theory of Competition among Pressure Groups for Political Influence’ (1983) 98Quarterly Journal of Economics 371 Brewster Richard ‘The Limits of Reputation on Compliance’ (2009) 1(2) InternationalTheory 323 Evans Gregory‘When is it Right to Fight?’ (2004) 46(3) Survival 66 Fearon John‘Rationalist Explanations for War† (1995) 49(3) International Organisation375 Gray, Chris‘The British Position with Regard to the Gulf Conflict’ (1988) 37 International Comparative Law Quarterly 420 Hovell Devika, ‘Chinks in the Armour: International Law, Terrorism and the use of Force’ (2004) 27(2) UNSW Law Journal398, 427 Kenneth Roth, ‘War in Iraq: Not Humanitarian Intervention’, (2004) 2 Human Rights Watch World Reporthttp://www.hrw.org/wr2k4/3.htm#_Toc5874495207 November 2013. Jervis Ray ‘Cooperation under Security Dilemma’ (1978) 30 World Politics 167 Lublan Derrick‘Preventive War’ (2004) 32(3) Philosophy and Public Affairs 230 Michael Reisman‘Assessing Claims to Revise the Law of War’ (2010) 97 Murphy, Sean, ‘Assessing the Legality of Invading Iraq’ (2003) 4 Georgetown Law Journal 4 Nicholas Kralev, ‘Russia Vows Pre-emptive Terror Hits’ (2004)The Washington Times How to cite The Legality of Use of Force against Iraq in 1991 and 2003, Essay examples

Contemporary Human Resources Management

Question: Describe about the Contemporary Human Resources Management (Hospitality Management)? Answer: Executive Summary An organization can be best with its employees and the employees can be best from its HR department. It is the duty with the HR to look after its staffs and employees so that they do not falter in their jobs. This assignment takes us to the internal environment of Cosmopolitan hotel where the issues that the hotel is facing is due the negligence of the HR department(Armstrong and Armstrong). We will first see the problems that are in the hotel for many days followed by the identification of the core problem of the hotel. The identification of the problem is done through the in-depth research of the case study. The problem lies within the organization and the supervisors. The key problem is lying with the department of human resource, which barely takes any interest in the company staffs (Chanda and Shen). After the identification of the key problems comes the solution of the case study. Some explanation and elucidation of the case is laid down to resolve the hotels strategic approach to the HR planning. After this the recommendations on the case study as to how will change in the scenario and policies will help the professional environment of the hotel to grow. Finally the implementation of the solutions and strategic HRM is given as to how the application of the solutions would take place, which is illustrated by a diagram. Problem Identification To manage the human resource in the hospitality industry requires specialized skills because it comes with different challenges. This industry is formed with dissimilar roles and background,ubiquitous focus on different guests and an organogram that is different from the basic models that ids used in corporate.There are multiple problems in Cosmopolitan Hotel which making it difficult for them to outshine and creating more internal problems. Competition from the anticipated 5 five star hotel has taken a toll on the management of Cosmopolitan. It has been seen that in spite of three skilled employees in the human resource department there are many employee and other issues(Chen). Roger, the executive manager is reluctant to outline a strategic HR plan because he feels that the hotel only recruits informal staff. Strategic HR plan is necessary in any organization so as to recognize the current and future manpower needs of an organization to achieve its goals. It is a link between the entire strategic plan and the management. He thinks it is only his responsibility to guarantee the hotels future but an organization to work successfully would require all levels of the organization to work together(Harney and Monks). In this the top management can easily address the junior and feedback can be generated from all the levels to make the hotel more successful. It is also seen that the human resource department is only busy with the recruitment process and training of the new joinees, they hardly focus on the existing staffs. There is no coordination between the employees and they do not work collaborating with each other. The employees along with skill development tr aining should also be given behavioral training (Hatum). The staffing issues are also having an impact on the customers also. The culinary staff is difficult to employ and the new employees are not ready to work for long hours. There have been sexual assaults in the workplace which is an unwelcoming culture in the organization which has adverse impacts on the image of an organization. Another major problem of the hotel is that they recruit people by advertising among their staff and also taking students from the local schools, there is no proper talent management for hiring people. Thiscreates an issue in the workplace and also among the friends and families who are recruited through referrals. The HR department does not properly guide the employees and the staffs towards the individual and organizational goals. Identification Of Key Problems Apart from the above pointed problems, there is a significant problem with the human resource department of the hotel. The HR department of the same is assumed to be lethargic and only focused to their work. They do not concentrate on the employees and the staffs and put more emphasis on hiring and training them. They hardly involve themselves in managing the people. They do not productively use the manpower to achieve the business goals and also doesnt take interest in the individual needs and goals(Kramar). The job of a HR is to decipher the strategy of the business into action along with creating value. They are the voice of the employees who is an agent of change. Employee motivation is another factor that they should focus on because an organization is majorly consisting of people and they are the ones who will work to bring in sales and work to attain organizational goals. As seen in the case that the head chef criticized the second chef which made him walk-off in the middle of his shift, the HR did not intervene and tried to retain the employee(Kkergin and DedeoÄÅ ¸lu). Here the employee relations come where the attitudes and behavior of the employees should be kept under control so that the organizational relationship does not get hampered. HR of an organization is faced with multiple issues in the workplace which are conflicting and unclear in nature that raises the question of morality and behavior standards. According to the a case study it is seen that a female housekeepi ng staff was sexually harassed in the workplace, the immediate job of the HR should have been to sack the employee or take strict steps against the one who is culprit, but nothing as such is mentioned in the case(Lee and Way). The HR department should be aware that there is proper law in the HR policy of the company which protects the interests of the employees. Their duty is to be responsive of the particulars to lessen the hotels exposure to litigation and dispute. It is seen that the hotel recruits from the local schools and colleges for the casual staffs. They do not focus on the skills and knowledge of the person to be hired for a particular job, so there is not perfect talent management and the employees tend to leave the job. They should be motivated to stay in their job and should also be satisfied with their work, only then the performance of the employee as well as the hotel will enhance. The HR department should design a job is way that they can retain its employees(Minbaeva). The HR department should understand the work and then hire the candidates so that they perform well creating a balance between their capability and their work(N. McCool). Solutions To The Problems When a position is vacant or a new job role is created it should be first seen that if it is job oriented or employee oriented. If the purpose of the job is explained than recruiting will be easy and effective, only then skilled or unskilled labor will be detected. The performance standards are enhanced. The duties and responsibilities should be equally distributed among the workers that they do not be under any impression of workload. Strategic HRM should be followed in order to tactfully manage the employees of the hotel. A proper HR plan is required to maintain the work standards in hospitality industry so as to increase the performance level which creates a good impact on the guests. The HR team should uphold regular and open process of communication with the staffs and other employees. To retain the employees they should identify and also reward their performances so that they feel their jobs are well-monitored and they are wanted by the organization(Nieves and Segarra-Ciprs). According to the case study the second chef left due to the misbehavior of the head chef and thus was not the first time that an incident like this has happened. So during the selection of the employees the HR, apart from seeing the qualifications and skills of the candidates should also analyze the behavior and attitude of the person. Attitude of an employee reflect in his job(Robbins). If his behavior is not good, his subordinates will not work under him properly. The past behavior and past records of the previous designation should be checked in order to maintain harmony in the workplace. Reference check of a candidate is very much necessary because a candidate may hide or manipulate his credentials so a third person referral for the candidate will imply if the his or she is hiding facts or not. In the case study we have seen that the housekeeping staff was abused by another staff, so in such case HR should take strict actions. The HR policy of the hotel should mention the code of conduct which every employee has to maintain in the workplace. If the guests or the prospective customers come to know about this the image of the hotel will be ruined thereby ruining the goodwill of Cosmopolitan Hotel. This will make the customers move to the next hotel which will soon open up. The HR should ensure that there is a professional requirement of safety and health and no discriminatory conduct of the employees. If this is not met then the HR should thin k it fit to dismiss the candidate on the grounds of misconduct(Scullion and Collings). It is seen in the case study that many young freshers are leaving the job and are not interested in working in the weekend. For this the HR should analyze their duties and responsibilities that is needed from the job (Shaikh). It is the duty of the HR while training is in process the employees should be explained a bout their job and the level of commitment that is needed from them while in job. Recommendations Some of the recommendations that can be given to the department of HR of Cosmopolitan is the following: 1. The HR department should analyze the external environment of the hotel to forecast the availability of prospective candidates so that they do not move to their competitors. 2. Even if the hotel employs casual staffs it should always chalk out a strategic HR plan to evaluate the manpower needs of the hotel. 3. The HR department should take out time from the recruitment process, to look after its staffs and cooperate with them to understand their problems and needs. 4. Besides paying the casual staff on the contractual basis the HR department should also think about payingthoseincentives and rewards for their outstandingperformance if any, so as to enhance their interest in the job and make them stick to it(Walsh and Taylor). 5. Roger should share his views about the hotel with its employees because an organization is made by the employees and the success of the hotel lies in their hands. The employees can also give feedback which may be fruitful for the hotel(Nieves and Segarra-Cip rs). 6. In spite of having work experience and skills, Andes have behavioral issues which are hampering the business of the hotel as staffs are leaving. So counseling by the HR department should be done to change the behavior at work and also traini9ng should be imparted to him so that he can cordially work his employees. 7. A hotel to stay competitive should have the best culinary department. The HR department should focus on the talent management part of the hotel so that only good talents in the culinary department are hired which will take the hotel ahead of its competitors(Minbaeva). 8. There should motivational meetings and gatherings for all the newly recruited freshers who are not able to relate to the job. It should be understood why they are not willing to stay. The supervisors as well as the HR should keep themselves available for the freshers so that they can come up and share their problems. 9. Staffing problems can be sorted out if the human resource department look in to the manpower needs of the hotel and chalk out the necessary requirements of people in specific departments by cooperating with the department heads. 10. The advertising for new employees should not be given to the existing employees rather it should be given in newspapers or local consultancies. Implementation The assignment discloses the challenges that t6eh hotel is facing in framing and implementing a strategic approach to its hospitality management. This challenge majorly includes the enthusiasm and inclination of the HR department, as the strategic partner of the hotel. There is absence of well-defined HR linked labor scarcity, performance indicators and policies with relates to t5he employees and the staffs. This assignment targets the HR departments, Department Heads, Executive Manager and other heads to increase the professional practice of the hotel relating to the strategic human resource management(Wang and Ritchie). It is known that turnover is expensive and it costs nearly four times the salary of an employee to replace another, which includes the process of recruitment, lost opportunities and lost productivity. It is approximately 48% that an organization experiences the regular issues with the retention of employees and 71.5% issues are faced to replace the staffs(Robbins). There should be a proper retention planning for the employees. To implement a proper HR strategy the following must be kept in mind: Training Mentoring Infuse a positive culture. Practice of communication to build trustworthiness. Demonstrate appreciation through compensation and benefits. Provide professional and growth opportunities. Create a work life balance Encourage feedback The diagram below illustrates the strategy to implement high level of performance in work system in the hotel. Figure 1: Illustration of high performance in hotel References Armstrong, Michael, and Michael Armstrong.Armstrong's Handbook Of Strategic Human Resource Management. London: Kogan Page, 2011. Print. Chanda, Ashok, and JieShen.HRM Strategic Integration And Organizational Performance. Los Angeles: Response Books, 2009. Print. Chen, C.-J. 'Strategic Human Resource Practices And Innovation Performance: The Mediating Role Of Knowledge Management Capacity'. Strategic Direction 25.6 (2009): n. pag. Web. Harney, Brian, and Kathy Monks.Strategic HRM. Dublin: Orpen Press, 2014. Print. Hatum, Andre s. Next Generation Talent Management.Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. Print. Kramar, Robin. 'Beyond Strategic Human Resource Management: Is Sustainable Human Resource Management The Next Approach?'.The International Journal of Human Resource Management 25.8 (2013): 1069-1089. Web. Kkergin, Kemal Grkan, and Bekir Bora Dedeolu. 'The Importance Of Employee Hospitability And Perceived Price In The Hotel Industry'. Anatolia 25.2 (2013): 254-267. Web. Lee, Chang, and Kelly Way. 'Individual Employment Characteristics Of Hotel Employees That Play A Role In Employee Satisfaction And Work Retention'. International Journal of Hospitality Management 29.3 (2010): 344-353. Web. Minbaeva, Dana B. 'Strategic HRM In Building Micro-Foundations Of Organizational Knowledge-Based Performance'. Human Resource Management Review 23.4 (2013): 378-390. Web. McCool, Barent. 'The Need To Be Prepared:Disaster Management In The Hospitality Industry'. J Bus Hotel Manage 01.02 (2012): n. pag. Web. Nieves, Julia, and Mercedes Segarra-Ciprs. 'Management Innovation In The Hotel Industry'. Tourism Management 46 (2015): 51-58. Web. Robbins, Steve L. 'Leading Industry Experts Answer Your Strategic HR Queries'. Strategic HR Review 8.2 (2009): n. pag. Web. Scullion, Hugh, and David G Collings.Global Talent Management. New York: Routledge, 2011. Print. Shaikh, M. R. 'The War For Talent: Strategies For Employee Retention In The BPO Industry'. Management and Labour Studies 32.3 (2007): 335-346. Web. Walsh, K., and M. S. Taylor. 'Developing In-House Careers And Retaining Management Talent: What Hospitality Professionals Want From Their Jobs'. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 48.2 (2007): 163-182. Web. Wang, Jie, and Brent W. Ritchie. 'A Theoretical Model For Strategic Crisis Planning: Factors Influencing Crisis Planning In The Hotel Industry'. International Journal of Tourism Policy 3.4 (2010): 297. Web.

Simple Techniques of Effective Art Critique Writing

Art critique doesn’t require a lot of time like dissertation writing. To make critique writing even more accessible, you should acquire sufficient critique writing skills. After studying and analyzing all possible sources, work out practical writing strategies to make your art critique essay creative and attention-grabbing. You will need professional assistance and a concise algorithm because there's no time for looking through a pile of literature on critique writing. This article will serve as a guideline for your excellent art critique writing (and you can always blow your GPA through the roof, just check our†¯main page). Writing an Art Critique: Basics What do you do when your professor asks you to write a new type of the paper? Yes, you start searching what kind of writing you have to complete. So, let’s take a closer look at art critique definition. An art critique paper involves a comprehensive analysis and assessment of the object of art. Also, when conducting the analysis, you understand the aim of the artist. Writing an art criticism essay may become a difficult task for some students. But don’t worry–its features are same to that of any other assignment, so using our guide, you can easily cope with writing this paper. Writing an Art Critique: 4 steps to a perfect paper As it was said before, there is nothing complicated in writing an art critique. You may ask:

Marxism and Economic Theory essays

Marxism and Economic Theory essays Human relationships have always been dynamic. Change and adaptability have gone hand in hand with the passage of time for human society. Systems have been developed to regulate, direct and control the resources of this society. The systems are referred to as governments and the resources as the populace or inhabitants and forces of production. A government must be dynamic in its nature reflecting the change in society. At times these systems have resisted the necessity to adapt with its components (Society) creating a deficit between the system and those it regulates. As the deficits develop, they cause instability, and could lead to revolution.1 Theories have been developed to explain the systemic phenomenon called revolution. This paper will discuss three modern theories and apply them to the English revolution of 1640. The first theory, developed by Carl Marx (Marxism), will address the economic evolution in English society. This theory will emphasize and explain how the shift from a feudal/mercantile system to capitalism affected English society. The second, called the Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) developed by Charles Tilly, will explain how the English organizations (the Crown and the Parliament) effectively obtained, amassed and managed resources. Samuel Huntington's, "Institutional Theory", will argue that the existing government at that time was unable to incorporate the demands and personnel that the socio-economic changes created. Marxism was formulated in the 19th century. Carl Marx and his associate Frederick Engels observed the socio-economic changes that were transpiring in Britain. England was the dominant world power and had the largest industrialized economy during the 1800's. The development of the factory and the institution of the assembly line created a large demand for workers. This demand was satiated by migrating peasant from the rural areas in England and Ireland to developing urban cent...

NASA Not Ready for Safe Manned Mars Mission

NASA Not Ready for Safe Manned Mars Mission NASA lacks the â€Å"right stuff† to deal with the dangers involved in sending humans to Mars and bringing them back – alive according to the space agency’s own Office of Inspector General (IG). In his 48-page report, NASA inspector general Paul K. Martin stated that NASA â€Å"faces significant challenges† in protecting Mars mission crews, and that it is being too â€Å"optimistic† in projecting its timetable for responding to the risks. As a result, Mars-bound humans â€Å"may have to accept a higher level of risk than those who fly International Space Station missions.† Now planned for the 2030s, NASA’s first human mission to Mars will be fraught with new dangers such as deep space radiation, increased cancer risk, impaired vision, negative effects of extended space travel on human behavior and performance. Reality check: By the 2030s, there will still be no warp drives, transporters, replicators or other â€Å"Star Trek† wonders to help our Mars-bound astronauts get there faster and stay alive longer. In fact, as IG Martin notes, they might even run out of food. Running out of Food? Yes, even basic nutrition could become a big problem, according to the report, because: A mission to Mars and back will take at least 3 years, but the current maximum shelf life for NASA’s prepackaged foods is only 1.5 years.The vehicle carrying astronauts to Mars and back will probably be far smaller than the International Space Station, providing significantly less room for food storage.Periodic resupply missions carrying more food, like those currently serving the Space Station, will not be possible.Finally, NASA scientists do not know how deep space radiation will affect the quality, shelf life and nutritional value of food. While NASA is investigating resupply alternatives, including actually growing food in the Mars spacecraft, the IG stated, â€Å"Despite 35 years of experience with space flight and research in this area, NASA food scientists continue to face challenges from crew member weight loss, dehydration, and reduced appetite that can result in nutrient deficiencies both during and post mission.† Dangers and Costs of Dealing with Them Not Known While NASA has developed ways to deal with most of the risks of travel in low Earth orbit, many of the added risks associated with long duration space travel – like trips to Mars and back are not yet fully understood. In addition, taxpayers, IG Martin also found that NASA cannot accurately project the true costs of creating ways to deal with the Mars mission risks. In fact, the ability of NASA to pay for a manned Mars mission, safe or not, is questionable given its shrinking share of the annual federal budget, which Congress has shown no signs of enlarging any time soon. â€Å"NASA has taken positive steps to address the human health and performance risks inherent in space travel,† Martin wrote, adding, â€Å"Long duration missions will likely expose crews to health and human performance risks for which NASA has limited effective countermeasures. †¦ Accordingly, the astronauts chosen to make at least the initial forays into deep space may have to accept a higher level of risk than those who fly International Space Station missions.† A ‘Culture of Silos’ Dragging NASA Down In his report, IG Martin contends that NASA’s scientists and engineers are held back by their tendency to work in what he called a â€Å"culture of silos,† in which technical teams work and collaborate only with specialists within their own areas of expertise. In other words, not enough research data is being shared. â€Å"We found multiple examples of work taking place on health and human performance risks that suffered from such communication silos,† Martin wrote. According to the report, NASA’s has so far failed to give its astronaut life safety community a designated representative to work with the engineering, safety, and mission planning communities to ensure that issues of astronaut health and physical performance are fully and properly considered. IG Found Some Progress, But†¦ IG Martin did find that NASA had been taking some steps to lessen the risks of the Mars mission including a new Mars rover, set for launch in 2020, that will be able to extract and collect oxygen from thin Martian atmosphere and ways to grow food in the almost sterile Martian soil. However, Martin concluded that NASA must speed up its work on astronaut safety in order to meet its established manned Mars mission goals and timetables.

Essay on Down Syndrome Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

On Down Syndrome - Essay Example The intellectual disability causes an individual to lag behind in his development of communication skills, social abilities and even his ability to take care of his own self in a proper manner. Teaching and support services for the individuals with intellectual disabilities is designed in a completely different manner and is targeted to meet their learning and problem solving requirements. Creative and interactive teaching ideas should be implemented in order to obtain maximum results. Visual, audio and interactive lesson methods should be applied and the difficult ideas and problems should be made comprehensive for the learners. American Association of Intellectual and Development Disabilities are directed towards support services and development support for such individuals (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 2012). Fig 1: An image of a Down Syndrome Child accompanied by teaching services personnel (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints 2012). Down syndrome i s defined as a condition caused by a genetic defect which results in both physical and intellectual limitations in the affected individual. The normal number of chromosomes in an individual is 46 but in a Down syndrome individual the chromosome number is 47 instead (National Association for Down Syndrome 2012). It is considered as one of the most common syndromes present at birth called as congenital syndromes. One in every 700 births is estimated to be a child with Down syndrome. It has been observed that the possibility of developing Down syndrome increases as the maternal age increases at the time of conception. After the age of 35, the risk of Down syndrome in the child increase by many folds (Selikowitz 2008). The prevalence of Down syndrome in United States was estimated to be one in every 733 births by Centers of Disease Control and Prevention in the year 2010. Around 60,000 cases are diagnosed with Down syndrome annually (National Down Syndrome Society 2012). According to a study in the year 2007 carried out among 63000 babies in UAE, an approximate incidence of one Down syndrome case for every 449 new born babies was estimated. The study also highlighted the maternal age risk factor and showed that around 41 % of the UAE mothers had crossed the age of 35. This also showed that maternal age is a major etiological factor (Shaheen 2012). Fig 2: A representation of prevalence of Down Syndrome in the years 1979 – 2003 per 10,000 live births in United State (CDC.gov. 2011). Down syndrome presents in the individuals with a large range of variations in its characteristics and features. As discussed earlier, it is a chromosomal defect; hence every cell of the body’s each system is defective. Hence almost every system manifests with problems and pathologies. Around 120 different features for this syndrome have been described up till now but some children might manifest with only six or seven characteristic features. The characteristic features des cribing Down syndrome are visible in eyes, head and face. A Down syndrome individual has round face with a flat side profile, with brachycephaly (Flattened back of head). The eyes are slanted, small epicanthic folds which might give a false manifestation of squint or strabismus and the iris might show whitish spots called Brushfield spots. The neck of the young child has greater fat content at the back which is diminished with age and an adult individual will have a broader and smaller neck. Hands are shorter with usually

Media Analysis Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Media Analysis Paper - Essay Example al justification for pre-emptive military action became irrelevant in the public’s mind influenced by vivid media images of the tragedy of September 11. However, the result of a government exploiting public grief with a media propaganda blitz has in turn resulted in thousands of innocent Iraqis dying and â€Å"the deaths of hundreds of American/Allied forces, and the destruction of the Iraqi infrastructures – all of which were seemingly forgotten† (Kamalipour & Snow, p.2). As a result, the use of the media has undoubtedly been integral in warfare campaigns, however the concomitant result of this is arguably that â€Å"it the dawn of the third millennium†¦. We as human beings have made no progress towards elevating humanity to its potential level of civility† (Kamalipour & Snow, p.2). This in turn correlates to the assertion of McLuhan that the â€Å"medium is the message†, which is the famous phrase propounded by Marshall McLuhan in â€Å"Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man†(1964). The central premise of McLuhan’s proposition is that the nature of the medium is what influences audience perception of the actual message regardless of content (McLuhan, 1964). In further developing this argument, McLuhan posits that the precise characteristics of the medium will engage an audience in different ways, which ultimately influences the communication of the actual media message (McLuhan, 1964). For example, in comparing how messages are conveyed in comics and movies, McLuhan describes movies as high definition in engaging the audience attention, in contrast to the low definition of the comic which requires a more participatory role of the audience to ascertain content message (McLuhan, 1964). The focus of this paper is to critically evaluate the impact of the media in relation to contemporary warfare with a contextual study of the recent Israel military campaigns in Gaza through a comparative analysis of Old Media versus New Media. Moreover, this paper

Brave New World Critical Lens Essay Example for Free

Brave New World Critical Lens Essay â€Å"I have freedom,† you say? Do you really? Perhaps, in some ways, you do. But in the end, you’re just another puppet being controlled by invisible strings whether you know it or not. â€Å"Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,† Jean-Jacques Rousseau once said. In society, man is â€Å"chained† and controlled by the government, by pressure of conforming to the social norms, by wealth and social class, and by one’s desires and emotions. Prior to birth, man is not restricted by such factors but that is merely a fleeting moment as he is slowly exposed to more and more of the world. I agree that â€Å"everywhere [man] is in chains,† but on the contrary, I believe man is already chained from the start—that man is never free. In the novel, Brave New World, by Aldous Huxley, babies are â€Å"decanted† and conditioned to play out their predestined roles in the World State. As early as the embryonic stage, babies-to-be already have their fates determined for them. In addition to conditioning, a drug called soma that induces a false sense of happiness dominates these people’s lives. As long as there is society, there will be shackles. Subjects of the World State were pre-separated into specific caste levels through processes such as the Bokanovsky Process, hypnopaedia, and Pavlovian conditioning. As mere embryos, they were already being trained for their predestined fates. By the time they reached the end of the â€Å"assembly line,† freedom did not exist anymore. They were enslaved to society. They were conditioned to strictly love and enjoy the aspects of their own castes and dislike the aspects of other castes. â€Å"We also predestine and condition. We decant our babies as socialized human beings, as Alphas or Epsilons, as future sewage workers†¦ (13)† stated the Director of Hatcheries matter-of-factly. How can man be born—or in this case, decanted ¬Ã¢â‚¬â€free if he can’t even make his own major life decisions or think for himself? Aside from conditioning, World State citizens so easily obeyed the government because they lived in such a â€Å"perfect† world that there just wasn’t anything to complain about. Generally, they didn’t have any problems in regards to sickness, death, desires, old age, passion, relationships and other issues that were often associated with an â€Å"unstable† society. â€Å"People are happy; they get what they want, and they never want what they can’t get.  (220)† If anything â€Å"bad† happened, all they had to do was take a tablet. â€Å"And do remember that a gramme is better than a damn. (55)† The World State government kept their people in â€Å"bottles.† â€Å"’Each one of us, of course†¦goes through life inside a bottle,’ stated Mustapha Mond. (222-223)† The government expected everyone to act according to the standard of infantile behavior—of simple satisfaction, ignorance, and lack of self-restraint and they condemned anyone who acted otherwise. Citizens of the society were encouraged to take soma when distressed and attend social events and activities and so on. It was through such ways that the people were kept distracted and obliviously controlled. These â€Å"socialized human beings† were so ignorant of the shackles around their limbs that they didn’t even try or think to take them off. When a man is born with chains—metaphorically speaking, of course—he is unaware of them. And if he is unaware of them, then there is no way for him to escape them. Such is the case with the people of the World State. They are conditioned to accept and even enjoy whatever path that is laid out in front of them. In this illusion of a perfect world, everyone is happy and without a care as the government does all the thinking for them. Ultimately, people of the World State are permanently trapped in a stage of â€Å"infancy†Ã¢â‚¬â€even upon their deathbeds.

The World Trade Organization Essay -- essays research papers

World Trade Organization (WTO)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The World Trade Organization came into being in 1995. One of the youngest of the international organizations, the WTO is the successor to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) established in the wake of the Second World War. The World Trade Organization exists to ensure that trade between nations flows as smoothly, predictably and freely as possible. It provides and regulates the legal issues which governs world trade now .   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The legal documents of the WTO explore this idea and the individual obligations of member countries. Consumers and producers know that they can enjoy safe supplies and greater choice of the finished products, components, raw materials and services that they use. Producers and exporters know that foreign markets will remain open to them. The result is also a more prosperous, peaceful and accountable economic world. Trade friction is set into the WTO's settlement process where the focus is on interpreting agreements and commitments, and how to make sure that countries' trade policies work together. Then, the chance of problems spilling over into political or military situations is lessened. By lowering trade barriers, the ...

The School to Works Program in America

In writing her article â€Å"An Avenue to High Academic Standards,† Lynn Olson confronts the tempestuous side of the education system: a recently added component of the curriculum. Olson claims that this new argument would further enhance the quality and practicality of the educational system. The school to works program was introduced in state and federal law in 1994 but its validity and utility is still being disputed over by various concerned parties. Being the senior editor of the national newspaper â€Å"Education Week,† Olson would seem to be well qualified to provide her readers with a persuasive and realistic analysis to an issue that is being widely debated. Olson†s article gives one the impression that this scheme would be a highly beneficial one to our high school students. However, though Olson†s article deals with most of the issues relevant to this scheme, a few areas have not been covered by her. On the whole, it would seem that this scheme should be brought into vogue as soon as possible as suggested by her. Olson has written a very sound article in which she persuades her reader through the means of sound logic well substantiated with real life examples to further strengthen her claims. She makes use of a simple and well-organized diction to enable her wide readership to understand the article. Also Olson†s sources seem to be well founded and used in a logical manner. Olson has written a convincing article because she substantiates her claims with real life examples of different school to work programs. She embarks on this path by giving the examples of a young high school student and that student†s positive and enriching experience with the school to work program. In this particular case, Olson writes that the school to work program helps this rudderless student to find her vocation in life and thus make a valuable contribution to society. She further adds that this student†s experience is not an isolated one and that numerous students have benefited from this program Olson also writes â€Å"Studies suggest that school-to-work programs can help address one of the greatest problems in education: motivation†. However, she writes that this program solves this problem and she substantiates this by giving the example of the 1994 evaluation of Pro-Tech, a Boston school- to work program. In this evaluation it was found that students who participated in these programs decided to take more rigorous math and physics courses than their peers. Thus, she proves that this scheme gives the students a clear indication about the direct link that exists between a good quality education and a good job. Therefore, these examples in her article enable her to provide her readers with a logical and realistic argument that seems to make sense. However, by providing real life examples to prove her point, Olson is justified in writing that the school to work program provides a self-explanatory answer to the question â€Å"Why do I have to learn this? † Olson further strengthens her case by elaborating some valid reasons that make this program a beneficial one to the students. Olson writes that the school-to-work program â€Å"engage students in active, hands-on-learning rather than teaching solely from textbooks†. She states that the primary aim of this program is to inculcate theoretical knowledge with practical knowledge, thus enabling the student to practice the theory learned in school in daily life. However, Olson does admit that there is still a slight confusion on whether this scheme actually encourages students to pursue higher degrees after they have graduated from high school. She counterbalances this by stating that it does help students who intend to go to college on deciding which major they would want to pursue in college. Furthermore, she also writes that these schemes provide students with the added incentive of acquiring extra credit hours. Olson also pads her argument by stating that this program provides society with an educated and skilled workforce urgently required by firms. The argument put forth by Phyllis Schlafly, in her article â€Å"School to Work will train, not Educate†, that these programs are the cause of economic requirements of society and are not due to educational upliftment is oversimplistic and lacks in logical coherency. Schlafly may have some substance in her theme that these programs would â€Å"cause a person or animal to be efficient in the performance of tasks by responding to discipline, instruction and repeated practice†. However, her entire article uses negative emotion to pursuade her readers to follow her line of thinking. Furthermore, her argument that this program will deprive a child of a sound education is countermanded by Olson†s claim that this program will motivate students to get a better education. Also George Willett†s statement in his e-mail message that â€Å"greater learning occurred where the practical was aligned with the academic†. However, one of the legitimate shortcomings of Olson†s article is that it does not provide her readers with all the information relevant to this topic. Her article has used only the positive sources that strengthen her case but overlooks all negative aspects that could have been assessed and resolved by her. Thus, as pointed out by Schlafly, one of the realistic drawbacks of the scheme is that it may be made a compulsory program with the students having no choice in the matter. In that case, the system would lose all the advantages of encouraging students to learn and would just evolve into modern child slavery, where the student may be forced to work whether or not he or she may want to. Also, she has not looked into the fact that the students would not be able choose their own programs. It would be allotted to them based on their grades and other factors by an appointed body called â€Å"The Workforce Development Board†, which is a very disturbing thought, placing the very ideals of a democracy at risk. This is one of the realistic fears put forth in Schlafly†s article. Also, as pointed out by Brian Faranell in his e-mail message that â€Å"asking a freshman in high school to declare his major is way to early†. This too is a legitimate fear that Schlafly has not confronted in her article. Therefore, it is recommended that the school to work program be an optional program wherein the only requirement is motivated students. Thus, no student should be forced to enroll in this program, as this would be counterproductive to the child†s welfare and make the very reason for its creation obsolete. Also, there should be sufficient choice in the different types of school to work programs, so as to enable students to choose among the various programs, so that they might be able to choose something that corresponds to their courses and which will help them in the future. Presently, there are certain countries that have already inculcated this scheme to their education system. Thus, it would be judicious to study their system for a period of time before going head long into one of our own. This would help in looking at all the shortcomings in their system and avoid them in our own. However, we must keep in mind that our basic society and education system may be different and that what works in those countries may not necessarily work in ours. It may also be a good idea to schedule a convention of teachers and professors and other educators to use their ideas. It should be always remembered that they are an integral part of the system, and the government should always take their opinion into account before enacting any bill. Thus, if all these shortfalls are removed the school to work program seems to be a viable addition to our educative system. Olson has covered none of these areas, in her article, which leads one to believe that she may not have researched the topic well enough or else she may not want to provide any negative aspects to her argument. Though her not confronting these issues may show that these are really serious problems that have no real short term solutions. Hence, her argument might have actually been strengthened if she had confronted these areas and tried to provide some sort of solution to them. However, on the whole her article seems to be well written. She has based her ideas on sound logic, which enables her to provide a coherent and well-organized thesis. She has well developed and organized her use of sources and has analyzed them well. Therefore, it would seem that her article would merit a good reception from the public. Therefore, it would seem that Olson succeeds in her purpose of providing a strong argument for the implementation of this program. However, as said earlier it would have been stronger if it had been comprehensive: tackling the harder issues as well.

Body Worlds and the Cycle of Life Essay

The Body Worlds exhibit was an amazing tour of more than 200 incredible plastinates; real human specimens that have been preserved. Dr. von Hagen’s is the man behind his incredible invention called plastination; embalming and anatomical dissection, connective tissue removal, body fat and water removal, forced impregnation with a polymer solution then placed in a vacuum chamber removing the acetone bringing it down to a cellular level, and then lastly the specimen hardens and is then positioned as desired. This phenomenal exhibit has given many people the opportunity to see the entire internal structure of the human body. The written explanations next to each display were very informative; giving a better understanding on how the choices we make throughout our life can truly affect us as we continue our journey through the aging process. According to Dr. von Hagen, it takes approximately 1,500 hours (1-2 years) of dedication for each sculpture, along with 350 others helping him throughout the process. All 20 of the bodies that have been donated remain anonymous; no details about them or their cause of death were shared out of respect for each of the donors. This exhibit was an amazing journey showing us how the human body changes through time; from conception and as one age’s. The exhibit starts with the zygote; a single cell formed from the father’s sperm, the mother’s egg, and the human genome; the blueprints of all living human beings. Human embryos and fetuses were on display showing each stage of cell division from conception through pre-natal development. The minute were born, our physical efficiency increases reaching its peak in our mid-twenties, then slowly starts to decline throughout the rest of our lives. There were normal clean lungs of a non-smoker on display next to black lungs of a smoker, which were half the size compared to the clean lung. The written explanation stated that each year you smoke about a cup size full of tar accumulates inside of your lungs. There were sectional displays of the thoracic cavity showing the gas exchange that occurs within the alveoli of our lungs. There were healthy hearts on display along with hearts that had pacemakers. There was a healthy liver next to a liver that has been damaged by excessive amounts of alcohol; showing visual cirrhosis. There were several displays of the human brain. One of the displays showed a brain at optimal health compared to a brain that has been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. I found it interesting that the human brain stops growing when you are 15 years old and individuals under 30 years of age take in twice as much oxygen compared to individuals 80 years of age or older. There was a 540lb sculpture, displaying the dangerous effects of obesity compared to a healthy 140lb individual. There were also sectional displays showing us a view of the abdominal wall and how every organ is affected by this extra unnecessary fat. You are what you eat! Sugar, in the form of simple, refined carbohydrates, is considered one of the body’s major â€Å"agers†. Excess sugar in the diet alters the structure of the protein molecule, preventing it from functioning properly and leading to the stiffening of the body’s tissues. High blood pressure can shorten one’s life expectancy by 10 to 20 years, and 9 out of 10 people are at risk of developing hypertension after age 50. We all need energy to function properly, but as we age our body doesn’t require as much energy like it did when we were younger. Our bones are flexible at a young age and adolescents. In adulthood, our body increases in strength and stamina, but loses its flexibility. The Artist’s Gaze was a display on sight and vision at birth and later in life. It was focused on the artist’s Claude Monet who suffered from cataracts, and Edgar Degas who suffered from retinal eye disease. A condition called Presbyopia; a progressively diminished ability to focus on near objects, is a normal part of aging and develops when the lens of the eye gradually loses it elasticity. An infant can see things close up with no problem, while a 30 year old would have to hold to object about 6 inches away. At birth, you have about 300 bones, as you grow older, small joints join together resulting in approximately 206 bones. At the age of 52 woman generally experience menopause; end of life’s fertile phase. As men age their testosterone levels decline, but unlike woman, they can reproduce throughout their later years. I learned that the world’s oldest people live in Okinawa, Japan and Ovadda, Sardinia. They shared some of their lifestyle practices, which I think we could all benefit from if we were to take their healthy habits and make them our own. Near the end of the exhibit, I really enjoyed reading one of the posters that stated, â€Å"Age is an issue of mind over matter, if you don’t mind it doesn’t matter†. Body World’s and The Cycle of Life was an incredible experience and has defiantly changed my way of thinking when it comes to the meaning of life and death. It has also given me a better understanding of our bodies and a completely different perspective on how important it is to appreciate life and take better care of myself!

Free Essays on The Importance Of 24 Hours

The Importance of 24 Hours I have had important years, some fairly significant months and maybe a few notable weeks, but I can’t say I’ve had too many earth shattering days. It is only 24 hours after all. There is one particular day, however, that could probably be justified as important, maybe even the most important day for me: March 10th 1980. I can honestly say I would not be the person I am today if not for that day and its events. Everything I would ever need was introduced to me that day. I met several people who would be there to support me in all my future ventures, successful or not. They would teach me many valuable strategies to make my goals attainable. I met a woman with a great knowledge of many useful skills and tricks she would happily share with me. There was a girl, and she promised that day to guide me through the toughest times and to prepare me for when she could not be there. The man who was there would someday walk me up to the biggest decision of my life and give me and my decision to someone new. They make up a pretty good team. It’s such a natural and basic thing that one’s birthday would not be the typical response to â€Å"What was the most important day of you life?† but it should be. That is the day when all your foundations are laid, whether they are good or bad, that is where our life will begin. And I was off to a pretty good start. The first woman I met, my mother would some day teach me all the basics I would need to get me by in life. She would teach me to cook, clean, sew, pretty much just how to run a house. She would also explain to me all the other things a woman needs to know. She would be there from the very beginning to the very end. My father’s role however would not be so big and would not come until later on in my life. He would be there to show me how to have fun, how to get into trouble and, hopefully, how to get out of trouble. Later on he would have b... Free Essays on The Importance Of 24 Hours Free Essays on The Importance Of 24 Hours The Importance of 24 Hours I have had important years, some fairly significant months and maybe a few notable weeks, but I can’t say I’ve had too many earth shattering days. It is only 24 hours after all. There is one particular day, however, that could probably be justified as important, maybe even the most important day for me: March 10th 1980. I can honestly say I would not be the person I am today if not for that day and its events. Everything I would ever need was introduced to me that day. I met several people who would be there to support me in all my future ventures, successful or not. They would teach me many valuable strategies to make my goals attainable. I met a woman with a great knowledge of many useful skills and tricks she would happily share with me. There was a girl, and she promised that day to guide me through the toughest times and to prepare me for when she could not be there. The man who was there would someday walk me up to the biggest decision of my life and give me and my decision to someone new. They make up a pretty good team. It’s such a natural and basic thing that one’s birthday would not be the typical response to â€Å"What was the most important day of you life?† but it should be. That is the day when all your foundations are laid, whether they are good or bad, that is where our life will begin. And I was off to a pretty good start. The first woman I met, my mother would some day teach me all the basics I would need to get me by in life. She would teach me to cook, clean, sew, pretty much just how to run a house. She would also explain to me all the other things a woman needs to know. She would be there from the very beginning to the very end. My father’s role however would not be so big and would not come until later on in my life. He would be there to show me how to have fun, how to get into trouble and, hopefully, how to get out of trouble. Later on he would have b...

Bush Sr & Clinton East Asian Security Approaches Essay Example for Free

Bush Sr & Clinton East Asian Security Approaches Essay President Bush via a main strategic reappraisal as well as continuing below president Clinton together with the U. S Secretaries of Defense Aspin and Perry. The previous administration tried and it is still trying to come into good terms with domestic pressures. It wants a calm dividend as well to adapt what the U. S has been always doing strategically to post cold war circumstances in a safe plus cautious way. All of this assists in helping to keep alive the rationales behind a United States bilateral security relationship with its Northeast Asian allies. Regardless of these echoes of the cold war, there is no one who can escape the truth that the cold war is presently over and that the Soviet Union does no longer exist. Furthermore, in Northeast Asia, also, the need has emerged to restructure U. S post Cold War alliances in order to make them fit the moments. A revision of the bilateral alliance relations goes on; there has been mounting interest in applying multilateral approaches towards the region’s issues. The Clinton administration did not have a well developed vision for what it intended to do in the Asia Pacific region during the time it entered the office. This seems to exactly know how it intended to deal with Asia by putting greater emphasis relatively within diplomacy as well security on a multilateral means over bilateral venues. During the first Clinton administration, inspiration regarding this approach appears to stalk from a bit reluctant admiration for the ways Southeast Asian states have tried to utilize multilateral techniques. The successes enjoyed by hatchling economic organizations in Asia such like the Pacific Basin Economic Council, the APEC forum and the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council. In any case, Assistant Secretary of State for East Asia together with the Pacific Affairs Winston Lord signaled the administration of Clinton. They signaled because Clinton had an intention of relaxing past United States objections towards multilateralism. He intended to do this by stating the goal the administration had towards Asia Pacific region. The goal was just to develop the multilateral forums for safety consultations while maintaining the sold foundation of the alliances. President Clinton has put more emphasis on the multilateral theme when he emphasized the phrase which was â€Å"a new Pacific community†. Winston used this expression earlier on although President Clinton placed it at the center stage internationally. Tokyo gets preoccupied by domestic political turmoil. It got preoccupied because the Japanese seemed to be reluctant to let the well known aspects of their bilateral security go. During the President Clinton administration, was somehow captivated because of the repayments multilateralism tent to give. The major disparagement of the United States governmental enthusiasm came from PRC. Despite the fact that Chinese suspected the idea, there was no any sign that what the Clinton administration was carrying on amounted to a closet form of unilateralism. The prospect for Northeast Asian multilateralism is so challenging. President Clinton, tent to give support concerning multilateral approaches in dealing with the problems of East Asia’s security. In the earlier administration, multilateralism was refused in support of reliance entirely on the existing bilateral alliances. The good security framework for the region consisted of a fan together with its base in Northern America and radiating west across the Pacific. The administration of Clinton reaffirmed the existing security alliances. It called for new equipments multilateral in character which was to supplement the U. S bilateral arrangements in dealing with the present emerging security problems. Washington did not advocate developing new comprehensive agencies, for example the conference on security and cooperation in Asia or the Northeast Asia Treaty Organization within this context. The multilateral agencies are going to be constructed for specific problems and they will differ in membership and the structure as required due to the administration of Clinton. The emphasis on a return towards a more traditional approach to a foreign policy in Asia is actually a prominence on bilateral and unilateral initiatives against multilateral ones. A larger focus on narrow military security issues over economic together with the marginalization of newer issues such as health and environment. However, there was tension and twist in the bush’s administration. The tension was concerning the conflict among the open trade wing of the Republican Party. The tension really emphasizes admission to the markets in promotion of U. S corporate interests. It again emphasized on the more security oriented folks who recognized military threats as the overriding concern of United States policy in the region. As a result, the tension was well-defined in assembly than in the executive branch. Pressure was far above the ground in White House depending on Bush’s arrangements to the key economic posts. The pressure was on the treasury, the United States Trade Representatives together with the description of the National Economic Council. Interweave was not similar with traditional realists. Some members of Bush’s Asia overseas policy squad saw a responsibility for advancing electoral democracy abroad. They saw it as a way of enhancing the economic welfare along with the safety of the United States within the area. During the Clinton’s administration, he tried to position rhetorically more emphasis on the two Asia Pacific forums. He again put more emphasis on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Post Ministerial Conference plus the new ASEAN Regional Forum. As far as multilateralism is concerned, the Clinton administration expressed a readiness to pay attention in letting nations of the region decide on the regional problems instead of dictating them from Washington. Even if the Clinton administration acted in agreement with these promises they are still not clear. The idea of the President Clinton’s administration did not become a reality with reference to multilateral agencies in supplementing United States bilateral associations. It intended to give a framework for security dialogue as well as the cooperation. It wanted to do this by offering the potential to redress the most stressing aspects of the present approaches to achieving security objectives in East Asia. Bush has foreign policy advisers who had a significant experience about Asia. These advisers really shaped the Bush administration policy towards Asia; from the time Bush signified that he had a big personal interest in associations with Latin America and Europe. Relating to the economic issues, there is a slight difference linking the Clinton administration as well as the Bush administration. Bush seems to be more of an unconditional free trader. That means that even the present modest efforts at integrating environmental and labor matters into bilateral trade agreements will not be present from the Bush outline. This fact will be greeted with sighs of relief between the business leaders together with the region’s political leaders. The biggest change under Bush’s administration was a greater emphasis on intensifying the alliances. He wanted to intensify alliances on matters concerning bilateral with Japan, the Philippines, South Korea and Thailand. That created the establishment of the cold war-era security structural design in Asia. Bush noted that people must show the American powers and purpose in supporting Asian people. That meant that they must keep their promise to discourage violent behavior against the Republic of Korea as well as strengthening security ties with Japan. That was through expanding theater missile defenses between their allies. The main motivation for USG participation in East Asia has always been right of entry to the markets of Asia. In one way or the other the Bush administration determined to strengthen the United States and Japan alliance. He intended to strengthen them by encouraging Japan to play a significant role concerning security matters within the region. That includes the redefining assignment of Japan’s self-protection armed forces as well as paying more of the bills. It is not clear at all that there is support either in the area as a whole or within Japan for Japan to assume a better security task. From China’s opinion, Bush’s success raises the view of stronger White House assistance for theatre in addition to nationwide missile protection systems. His success again raises the advanced levels of United States arms supplies to Taiwan of which Beijing stubbornly opposes. Gore administration gave greater scope to organized labor than Bush White House. The AFL-CIO did not manage to prevent the Clinton administration against pursuing trade at no cost with China. Alternatively Japan has been far less pleased with the next term of the Clinton administration compared to China. Japan resented the downgrading of the United States associations as the keystone in Asia. Clinton’s administration gave acknowledgment on a regular basis to bilateral. He emphasized on U. S and South Korean initiatives within the current cautious steps in the direction of finishing the isolation of North Korea. It is said that President Clinton passed over Japan during his visit to Beijing which was done in the year 1998. There are some issues whereby the Bush administration differs drastically with the Clinton administration. It is said that the Clinton’s administration, there were actually some few foreign policy conquest stories. That was the negotiation of the established structure in the year 1994. North Korea arranged to chill its nuclear plan in trade for the structure of two nuclear reactors as well as fuel oil shipments. During the time when the United States had to follow the guide of South Korean President together with the North, connection eased and pressures on the neck of land were at their depths of despair in memory. During the administration of Bush it really threatened to demoralize the significant development which was made within this area. Congregational republicans over-involved time after time the implementation of the framework. It did this by preserving appropriations, even if South Korea and Japan provided the enormous bulk of the funds beneath the agreement. There are a good number of very essential continuities among the Clinton as well as the Bush administration concerning East Asian security policy. This should not surprise as much as the Clinton administration embraced a lot of bedrocks of post cold war East Asian. They inherited this from the first Bush administration which was actually based on long time United States interests. It might be surprising if at all there were not permanence across administration for the reason that the basics of the US security policy within East Asia really transcend administrations. It is very necessary to recall the aforesaid fundamentals of continuity since the Bush foreign policy team came to office. The Clinton administration had already a bad work with virtually every aspect of the East Asian security policy. It might be astonishing if at all there was no permanence within administrations for the reason that the basics of US security policy in East Asia go beyond administrations (Martin, 112). It is very essential to recall the aforementioned elements of continuity since the Bush foreign policy team appeared to the office. The Clinton administration did not do a good job with virtually every aspect of East Asia security policy. The only way to distinguish the Bush administration with the one for Clinton is that there was a lot of reticent to insist that the core of gravity of United States security policy within East Asia is the coalition with Japan. The Clinton administration was not sure whether China or Japan was significant. it was too preventive in connections with Taiwan even if in fairness, as far as security matters is concerned. The Clinton Defense Department started inquiring very seriously into the state of Taiwan’s defenses and it also started pressing Taiwan to recover the software characteristic of their defense attitude. Bush administration was too captivated with multilateralism that was unsuitable for the region or had the potential to deteriorate bi-lateral alliances. The administration of Bush had a more customary approach meaning that it is not likely to involve Asia effectively on two wide areas of growing concern. That is global environmental matters for example the climate change, ozone, invasive species and global health matters such like communicable diseases. Bush did not propose the ratification of the Kyoto Protocol. He did not consider China’s proposal that greenhouse gas discharge be restricted on a per capita basis instead of a per country basis. The very poor records that were kept by Bush concerning the environment in Texas didn’t bode very well in engaging Asia on essential environmental issues. However, the first Bush administration is more likely to be fragmented, incoherent as well as contradictory. It suffered from the vision thing for so many reasons. In the first place, the Bush administration lacked a clear mandate. When he was campaigning, the new president did not offer sound foreign policy plan as a package, Asia countries included. Last but not least, East Asia has really undergone a considerable transformation since the time President Bush started ruling. Nevertheless, the coverage of this revolution in the western press is over and over again restricted to articles on China’s environmental problems or North Korea’ nuclear ambitions. Most of the East Asia’s leaders believe that for United States policy toward East Asia which has always remained essentially bilateral as well as ad hoc for decades to go on to be valuable, it must be updated to reflect more accurately contemporary realities in the region. Finally, Multilateral as well as unilateral sanctions have always been imposed on Iran in order to increase the pressure on its regime. The United States puts more prominence on its wide range of unilateral sanctions. Works Cited Glen, S. Axis of Evil and Rogue States: The Bush Administration. Washington: Glen Segell Publishers, 2006. Martin, G. International Relations Theory for the Twenty-First Century. Routledge, 2007. Seung, H. North Korea’s Second Nuclear Crisis and Northeast Asian Security. New York: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2007. Bush Sr & Clinton East Asian Security Approaches. (2016, Jul 31). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you